


TACTICAL 



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DNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofprac01phin 



A DICTIONARY 



— OF 



Practical Apiculture. 



GIVING THE CORRECT MEANING OF NEARLY FIVE HUNDRED 
TERMS, ACCORDING TO THE USAGE OF THE BEST 
WRITERS. INTENDED AS A GUIDE TO UNI- 
FORMITY OF EXPRESSION AMONGST 

BEE - KEEPERS. 

With Numerous Illustrations, Notes and Practical Hints. 






6« 

BY JOHN PHIN, 



AUTHOR OF "HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE, ETC. EDITOR OF 
"THE YOUNG SCIENTIST." 




NEW YORK: 
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 

1884. 

Copyright $ecurea, 1884, by Jolm P/t??f 



5 F5Z3 



Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1884, 

BY JOHN PHIN, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



tfCft 



PEEFAOE. 

The compilation of the following collection of terms used in Bee- 
keeping was commenced some years ago, when the author held the 
position of Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural College of the 
State of Pennsylvania. We believe the first Lectures on Apiculture 
ever delivered in any College or Technological School in this country, 
and practically illustrated by bees and hives, were those given by the 
author, during the year 1867, at the institution just named. 

In preparing his lectures, the author was impressed with the im- 
portance of securing uniformity, accuracy, and deflniteness in the 
terms used, and as a guide for himself and students, he compiled a 
brief vocabulary, extending to about two hundred and fifty vocables. 

For some years subsequent to this time, he was unable to devote 
any attention to bee-keeping ; the subject consequently dropped from 
his mind, the MSS. was laid away with other things, and by the merest 
accident escaped the disastrous fire at 37 Park Row, New York, which 
destroyed the author's working library, in January, 1881, as only a few 
days before the fire occurred the box containing it was removed to 
his residence. Having been recently placed in a position to resume 
his interest in that most fascinating of all pursuits — Apiculture — the 
old notes were found, and a perusal of them brought up many strange 
thoughts and associations. A pretty wide reading of books and jour- 
nals, during the past year or two, had impressed the author more 
than ever with the importance of some general guide on this subject, 
and as the same feeling seemed to have taken possession of the minds 
of many prominent apiculturists, it was decided to publish it. 

To this end the entire vocabulary was re-written and revised, so 
that the work has been brought down to the latest date. Few persons 
can have any idea of the amount of labor that this has involved, but 
notwithstanding the apparently very simple character of the volume 
which is the result, the number of general lexicons, special treatises 
on bees (from old Gervase Markham, 1610, down to Alley's work on 
Queen-Rearing), journals and technical works which have been laid 
under contribution, is a surprise to the author himself, now that the 
work is completed. He has taken nothing on trust, but has en- 
deavored to refer to original authorities in every case, and as the 
great libraries of New York are singularly deficient in works on bee- 
keeping, he has been compelled to rely wholly on his own collection. 
This may possibly induce the reader to exercise more than usual 
leniency in regard to the shortcomings of the book. 

A word or two in regard to the authorities upon whom we have 
relied may not be out of place. These authorities are of two very dis- 
tinct kinds : 1. Works and papers on Apiculture ; and 2. Dictionaries 
and treatises on Technology. 



11 PEEFACE. 

It is an unfortunate fact that most of the writers on bet-keeping 
have been deficient in general education — some of them even lament- 
ing this fact in their works. Of course there are some notable excep- 
tions— Markham (1610), Warder (1676), Dunbar, Cotton, Bevan, Lang- 
stroth, Cook, and a few others. We therefore find words used by such 
writers in different senses, and in many cases improperly — as, for 
example, the words hatch, hybrid, rabbet, etc. Now, while we have 
entered our pretest against the improper use of well-known words, 
we must remember that in the false senses thus given to them, they 
have crept into general use, and such use is not to be lightly changed. 
As Herschel well says : " Hardly anything can counterbalance the 
evil of disturbing well-established names, which have once acquired a 
general circulation." Moreover it must be borne in mind that the 
functions of a technical dictionary like the present are two-fold: It 
should not only give the right word for the right place, but it should 
enable us to understand the writings of all those who have treated 
upon the subject. We at first proposed to confine this lexicon to 
those words only which are in general use, but we soon found the im- 
possibility of so doing. The great difficulty of drawing any well- 
defined line rendered such a course out of the question. We have 
therefore given every word specially related to bee-keeping, with the 
exception of general botanical and entomological terms. To have in- 
cluded these woidd have doubled the size of the volume, without any 
corresponding practical gain. So, too, we have not deemed it advis- 
able to discuss the names of special forms except in a general way. 
Thus we give not only hive, but box hive, movable frame-hive, leaf- 
hive, etc., but we have not felt that it came within the scope of 
our work to give descriptions of such modifications as the American 
hive, the Gallup hive, etc., etc. Neither have we attempted to 
exclude objectionable words. We have rather aimed to give every 
word, simply contenting ourselves with marking those that are obso- 
lete or improper. Even such an absurd term as moth-miller finds its 
place in this Dictionary, so that the student may be warned against its 
use. Therefore, even the catalogues of dealers have been ransacked 
for terms and descriptions of various articles. Having secured the list 
of vocables, the next step was to note their meaning and mark those 
which are obsolete or improper. In this connection it will be found 
by the careful student that as regards technical subjects, we have, 
amongst our dictionaries, no ultimate authority— that is to say, none 
from whose decisions we do not feel perfectly at liberty to appeal 
without hesitation. Those who have studied our best and ablest dic- 
tionaries must have felt that in many points their deficiencies, as re- 
gards technical subjects, are so great that no independent worker will 
consent to be trammeled by them. We acknowledge them as au- 
thorities only when toe knoiv them to be right. 



P R 1 f* A C E . Ill 

The list of the dictionaries which have served us in the preparation 
of this volume, includes all those of most importance. Beginning 
with Bailey (1735), Walker (1798), and adding Johnson, Ogilvie ("The 
Imperial Dictionary," 4 vols., edited by Annandale), Richardson (edi- 
tions of 1838 and 1865), Webster, Worcester, and several minor ones, 
we have generally been able to get not only the usual meaning of the 
word under consideration, but its scope and and proper application. 
When any doubt occurred as to the propriety of the application of any 
word, we have sought firm ground through the medium of its history 
and etymology, and in this direction Skeats' Dictionary has proved 
invaluable. For special information in regard to chemical subjects 
we have relied upon Watt's u Dictionary of Chemistry" (8 vols.), and 
the works of Wagner, Muspratt, etc. The technical dictionaries of 
Ure (4 vols. 1878), Brande (3 vols. 1875), and the " Cyclopaedia of 
Anatomy and Physiology," edited by Todd (5 vols, v.d.) have often 
been of service. From recent general cyclopaedias, properly so- 
called, we have never received any very great assistance, and there- 
fore have never made any special efforts to add them to our library. 
From the older cyclopaedia of Rees, and the " Penny Cyclopaedia," 
much interesting historical matter may be gleaned. These we have, 
as also the "Lexicon Technicum " of Harris (1710), Jamieson's "Dic- 
tionary of Arts and Sciences," Gwilt's u Cyclopaedia of Architecture," 
Nicholson's "Architectural Dictionary," etc., all of which have been 
occasionally consulted with good results. The Botanical Glossaries of 
the late Prof. Balfour, and of M. C. Cooke, we have referred to for 
some words. In entomology, Westwood, Burmeister, Kirby and 
Spence, Harris, Duncan, Packard and Shuckard have been at hand. 

In matters of general apicultural practice we have depended largely 
upon our own experience, which began more than a quarter of a cen- 
tury ago, and enables us to look back with interest to the time when 
we procured our first Italian Queen from the early product of the 
importation of S. B. Parsons. This we have supplemented with the 
records given by others in the journals devoted to apiculture. We 
were among the early subscribers to the American Bee Journal, and 
although we did not take it for many years, we have now a nearly 
complete set of this most valuable periodical. 

Throughout the w r ork we have endeavored to reach a dispassionate 
and unprejudiced conclusion as to the value and significance of each 
word as used by the best authorities. It is only in a few cases that we 
have obtruded our own personal preferences and opinions as against 
the general custom. In some of these instances we are so clearly and 
decidedly right that the words we condemn will never again be used 
by respectable writers in the senses which we have condemned. Such 
words are hatch, rabbet, and a few others. Then we have words in 
regard to which we know we are right, though we are not quite so 



IV P&EFACE. 

sure of being able to convince others of the fact ; fertile and hybrid 
are good examples of such words. And lastly, there are the com- 
pound words formed from the word egg : Egg-workers, egg-drones, 
egg-queens. In regard to these, all we can say is that if we are not 
right we ought to be. Philologically and scientifically we are correct; 
whether others will see it in the same light that we do is of course a 
question to be determined. We await the decision of the majority. 
It may, not, however, be out of place to present here the reasons for 
the change, which we have proposed. In speaking of the different 
kinds of eggs laid by the queen (perhaps different conditioned eggs 
would be more correct, as all the eggs are probably of one kind) it is 
usual to speak of "worker eggs" and " drone eggs," when we wish 
to designate eggs which respectively will produce drones or workers. 

Now, to the ordinary reader, knowing nothing of bee-keeping, but 
thoroughly understanding English, these terms would signify eggs 
laid by workers and by drones, just as we speak of hen eggs, duck 
eggs, turkey eggs, when we refer to eggs laid by turkeys, ducks and 
hens. And in fact the term worker eggs does sometimes mean eggs laid 
by workers. The ordinary expressions, therefore, are not only non- 
sense, but absolutely incorrect in some cases ; for example, we have 
no such thing as u drone eggs ;" drones do not lay eggs. But if we 
use the word egg as a prefix to the words drone, worker, queen, Ave 
then express accurately the facts in the case and " egg-drones," 
"egg-workers," and "egg-queens," denote queens, workers and 
drones in the condition of eggs. We thus secure scientific accuracy, 
and avoid the double meaning which attaches at present to the ex- 
pression "-worker eggs." 

We have included in this Dictionary the names of the different new 
races of bees that have been described and recommended. It is 
proper to say that in this department we have had little or no experi- 
ence ; the descriptions have been copied from the best accessible 
sources, and are given for what they are worth. 

In sending forth this little work the author would ask those into 
whose hands it may fall to give him, either personally or through the 
Bee Journals, such criticisms on mistakes and omissions as their 
knowledge "may suggest. All such criticisms will be taken kindly, 
where kindly meant, for no one appreciates more fully than he does 
the shortcomings of this work. And although it is one of the sound 
canons of literature — one which the writer has never yet violated— 
that an author should not reply to his critics, yet in this case, as he 
believes that the general good will be best served by so doing, he will 
either accept any sensible corrections that may be offered, or give his 
reasons for reiecting them. 

JOHN PHIN. 

Cedar Brae, Palerson, N~. J., March, 1884. 



INTRODUCTION. 



u The imposition of a name on any subject of contemplation, be it a 
material object, a phenomenon of nature, or a group of facts and rela- 
tions, looked upon in a peculiar point of view, is an epoch in its his- 
tory of great importance. It not only enables us readily to refer to it 
in conversation or writing, without circumlocution, but, what is of 
more consequence, it gives it a recognized existence in our own 
minds, as a matter for separate and peculiar consideration ; places it 
on a list for examination ; and renders it a head or title, under which 
information of various descriptions may be arranged ; and, in conse- 
quence, fits it to perform the office of a connecting link between all 
the subjects to which such information may refer." 

Sir J. F. W. Hcrschell. 

Not only is our language governed by our ideas, but our 
ideas, thoughts, and reasoning are too often governed by 
our language. Loose language is the invariable accom- 
paniment of indefinite thoughts, while that which can be 
clearly expressed is in general clearly and definitely com- 
prehended. And the logician well knows the dangerous 
fallacies which may be introduced by giving one meaning 
to certain terms at one time, and a different meaning at 
another. " The use of language is not confined to its 
being the medium through which Ave communicate our 
ideas to one another ; it fulfils a no less important function 
as an instrument of thought, not being merely its vehicle, 
but giving it wings for flight. Metaphysicians are agreed 
that scarcely any of our intellectual operations could be 
carried on, to any considerable extent, without the agency 
of words. None but those who are conversant with the 
philosophy of mental phenomena can be aware of the im- 
mense influence that is exercised by language in promoting 
the development of our ideas, in fixing them in the mind 
and detaining them for steady contemplation. In every 
process of reasoning, language enters as an essential ele- 
ment, Words are the instruments by which we form all 



Vlll INTRODUCTION. 

our abstractions, by which we fashion and embody our 
ideas, and by which we are enabled to glide along a series 
of premises and conclusions with a rapidity so great as 
to leave in the memory no trace of the successive steps of 
the process ; and we remain unconscious how much we 
owe to this potent auxiliary of the reasoning faculty." — 
Roget. 

It is obvious, however, that if language is to serve us in 
any such capacity as this, its terms must be accurate and 
precise, and this precision which is so desirable for our own 
sakes becomes imperative, if we would seek to learn from 
others or to teach them. If in ordinary technical matters 
the terms used are indefinite, we must fail to understand 
or to be understood, and if they have several different 
meanings, we will soon find ourselves in the condition of 
the workers at Babel — asking for bricks and getting 
mortar. 

Care should therefore be taken to secure uniformity, and 
this can only be done by carefully studying the different 
meanings 'which have been accepted for different words, 
and rigorously adopting one to the exclusion of all the rest. 

It is true that in addition to accuracy a certain degree 
of elegance is desirable. This can best be attained by 
careful attention to the principles which govern the con- 
struction and use of language, and the exclusion of certain 
words which are inelegant, unpronounceable, and formed in 
violation of the accepted canons of philology. A general 
treatise upon this subject would occupy more space than 
this entire volume, but it may not be out of place to state 
a few obvious elementary principles. 

i. The first rule which ought to govern us in the use of 
technical terms is that if possible no word should have more 
than one meaning. Ignorant and uneducated persons who 
devise a new article are very apt to call it by some name 
which has already been appropriated to something else, 
and the consequence is that our technical dictionaries are 
full of words of double meaning. Better banish a word 
altogether than allow it to have two meanings. Fortun- 
ately, however, in bee-keeping, things have not gone so 
far that it is impossible to introduce a reform, provided suf- 



INTRODUCTION 



IX 



ficient authority be given to the right words to enforce their 
use by writers on subjects connected with this art. The 
words, colony, hatch, hive, stock, swarm, and some others, 
are all used at present in several senses, but the true meaning 
of each is so obvious that it forces itself upon the student 
as soon as it is presented, and then there is no danger of 
its ever afterwards being used in a wrong sense except in a 
moment of thoughtlessness from force of habit. We must 
acknowledge, however, that this latter danger is one that is 
not to be despised. 

The words cap, clamp, rack, transfer, etc., have each 
more than one legitimate meaning, and it will be difficult, 
perhaps, to eradicate altogether the confusion which thus 
arises. We have made some progress in our efforts to 
present the subject clearly and soundly, but the matter is 
not yet fully matured. It demands very thorough examin- 
ation and great caution, and should be fully discussed in 
the public journals before it is embodied in a book. 

2. The second rule is, that well-known words, when 
used in a technical sense, should depart to as slight a de- 
gree as possible from the meaning which they have in 
ordinary language, It will be found that the great ma- 
jority of technical words are merely ordinary words with a 
somewhat new meaning added; therefore they should 
never acquire a signification which shall be opposed to 
this meaning. This occurs, however, more frequently 
than one would suppose, and always without any good 
reason. Let us take the word rabbet as an example. As 
ordinarily used, and as applied technically by the carpen- 
ter, it has a well-defined and fixed meaning, and signifies 
the recess which is made in the edge of a 
board by removing a portion of the wood. 
Thus, for example, in the accompanying cut 
R is the rabbet. With the movable frame hive 
came a necessity for a recess in which the 
arms of the frames might rest, and as this 
recess was called a rabbet, the word came to 
be commonly used amongst bee-keepers ; but, 
unfortunately, to their minds it conveyed an 
idea equivalent to that of bearing or support^ 




RABBET. 



INTRODUCTION, 



And so when it occurred to somebody to attach a thin 
strip of metal to the edge of the rabbet, so as to make it 
impossible for the bees to glue the arms fast, these strips 
were called rabbets ! 




TIN BEARING. 



In the accompanying figure is shown a section of the 
upper edge of the end of a hive, b, and on the rabbet is 
seen a curved piece of tin, a, one edge of which is in- 
tended to support the arm, c, of the frame. These tin 
strips, a, are catalogued and sold as rabbets — the fact being 
that they are just the opposite of rabbets ! ! The proper 
name for them is bearings or supports. 

Another word which has been changed somewhat in its 
meaning, though not wholly by bee-keepers, is the word 
fertile. Of this word Worcester judiciously remarks: 
" Fertile is applied especially to the soil ; fruitful to trees 
and vegetables; prolific to animals" (See Worcester's Dic- 
tionary, s.v. fertile). It is now used by writers on bee- 
keeping to signify pregnant, and the word fertilize is em- 
employed as equivalent to impregnate. This misuse of the 
word came about through the botanists in this wise: 
Botany being a favorite study with young ladies of such 
an age that these words could not be used without a cer- 
tain degree of indelicacy, teachers very commendably 
looked about for some other expression, and adopted 
fertile and its derivatives. From the botanists it passed to 
the bee-keepers, but without the same good reasons. To 
its use there are many objections, and it is strange that it 
should ever have been adopted, when the proper word 



INTRODUCTION 



has been in general use so long. This word is fecundate* 
with its derivatives as given in the body of this work. 

This tendency to soften such expressions as convey 
coarse or indelicate ideas is a marked, and, from a certain 
point of view, a laudable trait; but, unfortunately, it is apt 
to introduce confusion by destroying the sharp clearness of 
our expressions, and by giving more than one meaning to 
each word. The tendency is well illustrated in the mod- 
ern use of the word meat, which formerly was generally 
used to signify food of any kind, but has now come to 
serve as a substitute for the word flesh — the latter having 
been banished as conveying ideas of carrion and objection- 
able objects. If we ask a modern housekeeper if she has 
any meat in the house, she will certainly say " No ! " unless 
her larder is provided with flesh of some kind, just as the 
little girl was puzzled to know why her papa said grace 
before tea — there being no flesh on the table, and her 
catechism expressly giving the grace as " to be said before 
meaty 

This tendency towards euphemism, as it is called, that 
is, a softening of speech, is very general. It is seen in the 
use of the words " plain " for " ugly ; " " fast " for " dissi- 
pated ; " "gallant" for "licentious," and others. But it 
tends to defeat the very object which it has in view, as is 
well illustrated by Mill in his " System ot Logic," by the 
following anecdote : At a certain period in French his- 
tory the expression " to esteem " came to denote more than 
modern dictionaries give as its meaning. In short, it be- 
came a euphemism for licentiousness. A certain lady of 
the Court of France, when at confession one day, acknowl. 
edged that she had an " esteem " for a certain cavalier. 
" Combien de fois l'avez vous estime ?" was the question 

* For authorities on this point, see Cuvier's " Animal Kingdom," 
edited by Prof. W. B. Carpenter, the well-known author of a standard 
work on Physiology, and Prof. J. 0. Westwood, whose work on Ento- 
mology, in 2 vols., 'is an acknowledged authority. These two gentle- 
men are perhaps the highest authorities in the language. In giving 
the technical terms used in Zoology, at page 28 we find the following : 
u When there are sexes the male'sex fecundates." In the translation 
of Huber's work, published in Edinburgh and London (Second* Edi- 
tion, 1808), the word fecundate is always used. See pages 8, 18, 20, 
28, 33, 37, 44, etc., etc. 



Xll INTRODUCTION. 

which came quickly back, and this having got abroad, put a 
stop forever to that use of the word. 

The euphemism of to-day becomes the indelicate expres- 
sion of to-morrow, and while we have really gained noth- 
ing, we have introduced confusion and error. 

3. Scientific precision is an end that should always be 
carefully sought in our expressions. We do not mean by 
this that many-syllabled scientific terms should be used in 
preference to simpler words found in common use, but 
where the ordinary expression is. loose and indefinite, the 
scientific word should always be used. A good example 
of this is found in the words moth and miller. Miller is no 
doubt a proper general term for the insect that has caused 
so much injury to bees, but then it is applied equally to 
any small butterfly as well as to a moth proper. Moth, on 
the other hand, has come to have a precise scientific mean- 
ing, and is altogether the best word. On the other hand, 
good, plain, common words are sometimes to be greatly 
preferred to the scientific substitutes used in their place, 
for the simple reason that the common name denotes the 
commercial article, while the scientific term can be 
properly applied only to a pure product, which bee-keepers 
rarely use, and to this extent it is inaccurate. Such a 
word is farina ; it formerly meant flour or meal, and has 
been used as a synonym for pollen; it now means starch, 
or rather the pure starchy powder obtained from various 
grains. It is needless to say that true farina is not used by 
beekeepers ; they use meal and flour ? and these names are 
altogether to be preferred. ' 

4. A certain degree of elegance and force should always 
be sought by every writer, and it will be found that short, 
familiar, anglo-saxon words are always to be preferred to 
those long compounds adopted from other languages. 
" Matrimonial excursion " is not nearly so good as 
" wedding flight " ; "handling" is, in most cases, greatly 
to be preferred to " manipulation," though, the two words 
not being quite synonymous, the term " manipulation," 
which has a sub-audition of operating which handling lacks, 
cannot be altogether dispensed with. The same is true of 
the words " apiculture," " bee-keeping," and several others. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The inappropriate use of high-sounding words of foreign 
origin is exceedingly ridiculous, and, strange to say, it is 
not always the uneducated that are guilty in this respect. 
To use a technical word properly requires a knowledge 
not only of language, but of the arts, and with the latter 
there are but few classically educated men who are con- 
versant. An instance came to our knowledge, a short 
time ago, where the head master of a classical school, not 
a thousand miles from New York, had presented to him 
for examination a new style of joint for uniting the pipes 
forming the water supply and sewage systems of buildings. 
The word joint, however, was too simple; in his eyes the 
term was "common," and therefore "■unclean." Conse- 
quently, throughout the whole conversation he substituted 
the word "articulation" for joint —thus not only making 
himself ridiculous, but committing a positive error. 

Hybrid words, that is, words which are made up of 
parts from different languages, are always inelegant, and 
should be rigorously condemned and thrown out of use. 
Such a word is Bee-culture. The first half is English, the 
second part is Latin, and the whole may be called " Maca- 
ronic."* The word Apiculture, on the other hand, is a 
legitimate word, and may well take its place beside Agri- 
culture, Arboriculture, Floriculture, Horticulture, Pisci- 
culture, Sericulture, Sylviculture, Viticulture, etc., etc., al- 
though it is not found in the unabridged edition of 
" Webster's Dictionary." 

In some instances, an attempt has been made to 
adapt English words to special cases which they do not 
cover. This should be avoided, even at the cost of using 
a purely Latin or Greek word. Thus the word midrib has 
been used to denote the septum or partition between the 
two sheets of cells which are found in every comb. Now 



*The term " Macaronic" is applied to prose or poetry in wlfich two 
languages are mixed up, each following its own inflections. The 
well-known verses, beginning — 

" Felis sedit by a hole. 
Intenta she cum omni soul, 
Prendere rats." 
form a good specimen of macaronic poetry. 



XIV INTKODTJCTION. 

the word "midrib," though good English, does not meet 
the case. It is a modern word, not found in Bailey (1735), 
Walker (1798), Richardson's Ed. of 1838, or even in 
Maunder (1838), who picked up almost everything in 
common use. Skeat does not give it. So far as we 
have been able to trace its history, it would appear to 
be a modern word used only by botanists to designate 
that extension of the petiole which passes along the mid- 
dle of a leaf, and to apply it to the thin sheet of wax 
which forms the division between the ends of the two sets 
of cells in a piece of Honey comb is decidedly wrong. The 
word septum, however, is short, easily pronounced, explicit, 
and, in spite of its Latin form, should be adopted. The 
word diaphragm might be used, but has never been sug- 
gested, so far as we know; it has no advantage over sep- 
tum, and its length and complexity are against it. 



DICTIONARY 



OF 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



Abbreviations.— Certain words in frequent use are generally 
abbreviated or contracted by writers on Bee-Keeping. This is 
certainly unobjectionable, being the same practice followed by 
botanists aud others, and to those who are familiar with them 
they cause no confusion, though beginners are sometimes puz- 
zled. The following are the principal abbreviations that we 
have met in the works in common use: 

Cb - i Tomb L; L angstroth. 

Cmb. f ^ omo - L. F. Langstroth Frame. 

Fdu. Foundation. Q. Quinby. 

H. Hive. Q. F. Quinby Frame. 

Abbreviations which though not peculiar to Bee-Keeping are 
used in this book: 

a. Adjective. 

n. Noun. 

q. v. Qaod vide — which see — when placed after a word it 
means: Refer to that word. Thus: Comb (q. v.) directs us to 
look up the word Comb for further information. 

s. v. Sub verbo. Under the word or title. Thus: s. v. Race 
means that the desired information Will be found Under the 
title or heading Race. 

v. Verb. 

In the following pages we have indicated the part of speech 
of a word only when the same word occurs, sometimes as one 
part of speech, and sometimes as another. 

Abdomen. — The third or most posterior of the sections into 
which the body of the bee is externally divided. It consists in 
the males of seven, and in the females of six segments. It con- 
tains the principal digestive and respiratory and the whole of 
the generative organs. 



8 DICTIONAB* OP ( 

Abliormal Swarm. — A swarm is abnormal when it comes out 
under unusual conditions. (Abnormal meaning without law or 
contrary to known laws). In many cases, however, a colony leaves 
its hive in a body without really having the swarming impulse 
(See Swarming Impulse). Colonies under such conditions can- 
not properly be called swarms. The term Deserting Colony (q. v.) 
expresses the facts in a more satisfactory manner. 

Absconding Swarm. — This term has been applied to a colony 
of bees under two very different conditions. The first and un- 
questionably the proper signification is a swarm, which, forming 
only part of the original colony, comes out under regular condi- 
tions and absconds or leaves for parts unknown. But sometimes 
it is applied to a colony which deserts its hive in a body — a 
phenomenon only too well known to careless bee-keepers. In 
the latter case there is nothing of the " swarming " character 
about the affair (See Swarm), and the term "Deserting Colony" 
would express the facts in a much better manner. 

Adapter.— " A board to set .glasses on." — Keys. What is now 
called a Honey-board. ' 

Adulteration.— "This term is only properly applied to the 
adding of substances to articles of commerce, food or drink, for 
the purposes of deception or gain; but the term, by magistrates 
or analysts, is often practically applied to accidental impurity, 
or even in some cases to actual substitution." — Blyth. The strict 
etymological meaning of the word is the adding of something 
else, but like most other words, this one has come to have a 
much wider, though quite legitimate, signification. It includes 
the taking away, as well as the adding, of important ingredients. 
Thus tea and coffee may be properly said to be adulterated 
when the theine and caffeine have been abstracted, and sold 
separately, and the leaves or ground berries are then offered 
for sale as new. 

The more common adulterations of the articles connected 
with apiculture will be found under the heads, Honey, Sugar, 
Wax. 

Adulteration is one of the greatest enemies of the bee-keeper, 
as it not only excites suspicion in the minds of the public, but 
by unfair competition lowers the price of the pure article. Bee- 
keepers throughout the country should unite to secure laws 
visiting severe penalties upon this crime. We cannot trust to 
our scientific professors to expose and condemn it, as the his- 
tory of oleomargarine very sadly showed. Indeed the names of 
many of our college professors are better known in connection 
with puffs of commercial articles, than for scientific research. 
The reform must begin with the people. 

After-Swarms. — Swarms which come out a short time after 
the first swarm are called after-swarms, and are always led by 
virgin queens, of which they sometimes contain several. When 
sufficient time elapses for the supernumerary queens to be de- 



P&ACTICAIi APICULTURE. 9 

stroyed in the original stock, the new queen to be fecundated, 
and queen cells to be raised from her progeny, the swarm may 
be called a late swarm, but cannot be called an after-swarm. Such 
a swarm is a prime swarm, as much as one sent out in May, be- 
cause it is led by an old queen. 

Air-Space— Dead. — A space filled with air and so completely 
enclosed that there is no communication with the external at- 
mosphere. Such a space has been recommended by many 
prominent writers as being quite as good a non-conductor of 
heat as a similar space filled with loose material like straw, dry 
leaves, chaff, etc. This is a great mistake. The air, owing to 
its great mobility, carries the heat rapidly from one side of the 
apartment to the other, and so allows it to be dissipated. In fit- 
ting up hives with double walls for the purpose of protecting 
the inmates from great cold or sudden changes of weather, the 
space between the walls should always be packed with some 
light, porous material, which will effectually prevent all circula- 
tion of air in the confined space. 

Albino. — By this term is properly meant a person or animal 
having an unnatural whiteness of the skin and hair, and what 
are called red eyes, the latter appearance being due to the en- 
tire absence of pigmentary matter, so that the pupil shows red. 
The term was first applied by the Portuguese to certain negroes 
they found on the coast of Africa, and who were born mottled 
or disfigured with white spots. In the albinos the eye is very 
weak and is of but little use during the daytime, being capable 
of seeing distinctly only in twilight or moonlight. Various 
races of domestic animals, as rabbits, ferrets, cats, etc., fre- 
quently show the albino peculiarity. 

So much for the true albinos. The term is sometimes ap- 
plied by bee-keepers to a strain of Italian bees which are rather 
lighter than usual, and which has the rows of white hairs unusually 
distinct. " They are not a distinct race. In fact I have often no- 
ticed among Italians the so-called Albinos." — Cook. 

Alighting Board. — A board upon which the bees alight when 
they return to the hive. It may either be a part of the hive or a 
simple board laid in front of the entrance. 

Apiarian. — The best authorities use this word as an adjective 
only. Thus we speak of "apiarian pursuits," "apiarian pro- 
ducts," "apiarian implements," etc. The use of the word as 
denoting a pere°n who keeps bees is against good usage. See 
Apiarist. r- 

Apiarist. — One who keeps or cares for an apiary. A bee- 
keeper. Sometimes improperly called an Apiarian. 

Apiary. — A place or establishment where bees are kept. The 
term apiary may mean either the locality or the "plant." 
Good custom sanctions both uses of the word. 

Apiator. — A bee-keeper. 



10 DICTIONARY 01 

Apiculture. -^-Bee-keeping; the care and management of bees. 
The word apiculture is not recognized by many of our standard 
authorities, but we confess that we cannot see any objection to 
it. It stands on the same ground as arboriculture, horticulture, 
viticulture, etc. , all of which are generally accepted. On the gen- 
eral principle that a good Anglo-Saxon word is always to be pre- 
ferred when it can be used to equal advantage, we prefer the term 
■Bee- Keeping, to Apiculture, but at the same time it must be borne 
in mind that apiculture has a somewhat broader signification 
than bee-keeping. The term bee-keeping, therefore, cannot always 
take the place of the word apiculture. 

Apidae. — The name of the Family to which the honey-bee be- 
longs. It includes several Geneea, one being apis in which the 
bee is found. See Apis. 

Apis. — The name of the Genus in which the honey-bee is 
found. Great differences of opinion exist as to the number of 
species which it includes. "Westwood enumerates eight species, 
but later entomologists are inclined to regard most of these as 
mere varieties. Prof. Cook regards the following as distinct: 
, Apis dorsata of India and the East Indies, known as the Great 
Bee of Java. 

Apis ' Zonata of the same island. 

Apis Indica of India and China. 

Apis Florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo. 

Apis mellifica, our common honey-bee, of which the more com- 
mon.! races will be found enumerated under the head Bee ii 
this dictionary. Those who wish to study the position of the 
bee in the organic kingdom will find a most admirable resume 
of the subject in Prof. Cook's "Manual of the Apiary." 

See also Race, Variety, Species in this work 

Artificial Comb. — See Comb,' artificial. 

Artificial Fecundation. — The impregnation of queens in con- 
finement. Sometimes improperly called artificial fertilization. 

Artificial Honey.— See Honey, artificial. 

Artificial Pasturage.— Plants yielding honey and raised by 
cultivation as opposed to those that grow wild. 

Artificial Pollen. — Flour and meal of various kinds are errone- 
ously so called because they are frequently used as substitutes 
for the pollen of flowers. 

Artificial Swarm. —See Swarm, artificial. 

Atavism. — This is a medical term frequently used by breeders 
of stock. It signifies the recurrence of any peculiarity or dis- 
ease of an ancestor in a subsequent generation after an inter- 
mission for a generation or two. See Crying Back. 

Balling' a Queen.- — Bees occasionally surround the queen in 
a compact cluster or " ball." This is more apt to happen when 
a strange queen is introduced to a colony, but sometimes a 



PKACTICAL APICULTUBE. 11 

colony will ball their own queen if unusually excited or dis- 
turbed. The term is used in either case. If not soon released 
the queen dies and ia thrown out of the hive. Dzierzon tells us 
that bees sometimes ball their queen for the purpose of pro- 
tecting her from the attacks of strange bees. 

Barley Sugar.— Sugar boiled till it is brittle when cool and 
then candied. So-called because it used to be boiled with a de- 
coction of barley. See Candy. 

Bar Hives. — Hives in which the combs are attached to bars 
instead of being enclosed in frames. The bar usually corres- 
ponds to the top bar of the ordinary frame, and the comb is 
suspended from it. It was used in early times, even before the 
invention of the frame by Langstroth. The frame has entirely 
superseded it in this country, though, strange to say, it is still 
used largely in Europe. 

Barren.— Sterile. Incapable of producing young. 

Bars.— Strips of wood to which combs are attached and from 
which they hang in bar-hives. 

Bee. — The term Bee or Honey-Bee is properly applied only to 
the different species of the genus Apis (q. v.) which also include 
several varieties or races. See Breed, Race, Variety. Under the 
following heads: Albino, Black, Brown, Carniolau, Caucasian, 
Cyprian, Dalmatian, Egyptian, German, Heath, Holyland, Italian, 
Palestine, Syrian, will be a found a description of some of the 
races. 

The term Bee has two meanings, just as the -word man is used 
in two senses. The first and narrowest sense is that in which it 
is used to denote the full-grown bee and particularly the worker 
bee, when no other is signified. The second and broader signifi- 
cation includes the bee in every condition — queen, drone, worker, 
egg, larva, nymph, etc. 

The life-history of the bee is briefly as follows: The males are 
known as drones; the perfect females as queens, of which only 
one is normally found in each colony; the imperfectly developed 
females as workers. Under normal conditions they are all devel- 
oped from eggs laid by the queen or perfect female, and during 
the progress of this development they pass from the egg to the 
larval condition; from the larva to the pupa or nymph; from the 
nymph to the perfect bee— the time occupied in each step, some 
allowance being made for differences of temperature and other 
unknown conditions, being nearly as follows: 

Egg. Larva. Sealed. Entire Period. 

Drone 3 days. 6h days. 141 days. 24 days. 

Queen 3 " 5" " 8" " 16 " , 

Worker 3 " 5 " 13 " 21 " 

The pupa or nymph form is assumed only after the larva has 
been sealed for some time. At first the young bees do not leave 
the hive except for what is known as a "play-spell," in which 



12 DICTIONARY OF 

their wings are probably hardened and their muscles strength- 
ened so as to prepare them for long flights when gathering 
honey and pollen. "The young bees build the comb, ventilate 
the hive, feed the larvae and cap the cells. The older bees— for, 
as readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not go forth 
for the first two weeks — gather the honey, collect the pollen, or 
bee-bread, as it is generally called, bring* in the propolis or bee 
glue, which is used to close openings and as a cement, supply 
the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all improper intru- 
sion, destroy drones when their day of grace is past, kill and 
arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy inchoate queens, 
drones and even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead 
forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to 
swarm. When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as 
house-keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. 
The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean, 
even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of 
bee-duties. " — Cook. 

Numerous attempts have been made to determine the number 
of bees in an ounce, a pound, a quart and a gallon, but their 
weight and bulk vary so much under different conditions that 
the results are not very satisfactory. A. I. Root gives 4,000 as 
the number of bees in a pound. These were probably well filled 
with honey. Keys, towards the close of the last century, pre- 
pared the following table which does not differ widely from 
Root's estimate. 

NUMBER, WEIGHT AND MEASURE OF BEES. 

lb. oz. dr. 

100 Drones 10 

290 Workers 10 

4,640 " 1 

915 " | pint 3 2 

1,830 '« 1 " 6 5 

3,660 " 1 quart 12 10 

29,280 «« lpeck 6 5 6 

The weight is avoirdupois and the measure the Winchester 
bushel, which contains 2150-42 cubic inches. The peck con- 
tains 5375 cubic inches, and Keys says that a swarm filling this 
is the least that will prove productive. See Nucleus. He adds 
that these data are only approximative, as they will never come 
out twice alike. 

Bee-Bird. — A local English name of the spotted flycatcher 
(Muscicapa grisola), so called from its catching bees. — Ogilvie. 

Bee-Box. — A hive. 

Bee-Bread. — The farinaceous matter which forms part of the 
food of bees. Generally it consists of pollen but bees some- 
times, either of their own accord or under the influence of the 
bee-keeper, use flour and other matters. See Pollen. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 13 

Bee Cap. — A close fitting cap or hood used by European bee- 
keepers for the same purpose as our bee-veils (q. v.). It seems 
to us an expensive, awkward, suffocating contrivance when 
compared with our simple device. 

Bee Climbers.— Iron stirrups with sharp steel points usually 
strapped to the leg, and used to aid the bee-hunter in climbing 
trees. Almost the same as those used by " line-men " when re- 
pairing telegraph lines. 

Bee-Culture. — This word is equivalent to bee-keeping and 
apiculture. It* used as two words it might be pardoned, but as a 
compound word, the several parts being from different languages, 
it violates the canons of sound philology and should be dis- 
carded. See Apiculture. 

Bee-Culturist.— One who keeps bees. This word may not be 
absolete but it ought to be. 

Bee-Dress. — A suit so arranged as to protect the entire person 
from the stings of bees. It is made in different ways, for a de- 
scription of which see any good work on bee-keeping. — See Veil. 

Bee-Eater. — A bird that feeds on bees. There are several 
species included in the genus Merops, of which the M. apiaster 
of Europe is remarkable for the brilliancy of its plumage. — 
Ogilvie. 

Bee-Garden. — An apiary. A garden or enclosure to set bee- 
hives in. 

Bee Glass. — A glass in which bees may store honey.— Brande. 

Bee Glue.— Another name for propolis (q. v.). 

Bee-Gum. — 1. Since the black gum tree (Nyssa multiflora), 
one of the largest trees of the Southern States is almost always 
found hollow, bees in the wild state very frequently select this 
tree for a habitation. Man, taking the hint, in early days used 
a section of a hollow gum tree for a hive. Most hives were 
therefore really gum-tree hives, and hence the term gum or bee-gum 
came to mean any kind of hive. Properly, however, it signifies 
a hive made of a hollow log or tree. 

2. Propolis is sometimes improperly so called. 

Bee Hawk. — The honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus), so-called 
from preying on hymenopterous insects, such as wasps, etc. 
Lepidopterous insects of the genus Sesia are also often called 
bee-hawks or bee-hawk moths. — Ogilvie. 

Bee-Herd. — An old name for a person who takes care of bees. 

Bee-Hive. — See Hive. 

Bee-Hood. —See Bee- Cap. 

Bee-House. — The Imperial Dictionary and others define bee- 
house as a house for sheltering hives, and this is the generally 
accepted and, in English, the proper meaning of the term. 



14 DICTIONARY OF 

Some persons who have had a German training use the word in 
its German sense of bee-hive. 

Bee-Keeper. — One who keeps bees. See Apiculturist and bee- 
culturist. 

Bee-Line. — The shortest and most direct line from one place 
to another, like that of a bee through the air. 

Bee-Louse. — A curious parasite found on the honey bee and 
named Braula cceca (Nitzsch). It is not common in this country, 
but does considerable injury to bees in Southern Europe. A fig- 
ure and very excellent description are given in Prof. Cook's 
Manual. See also article Parasite in this Dictionary. 

Bee-Martin. — A local name for the king bird — Tyrannus 
Carolinensis. 
Bee-Master.— One who keeps bees. 
Bee Moth.— See Moth. 

Bee Pasturage. — Flowering plants from which bees gather 
honey. It is said to be natural or wild when it grows without 
cultivation and artificial when it is planted specially for bees. 
Some plants, such as the apple, raspberry, buckwheat, etc., oc- 
cupy a middle position, being cultivated for fruit or grain, but 
at the same time yielding large quantities of honey. 
Bee Plants. — Plants that yield honey. 
Bees-Wax. — See Wax. 
Bee Tent.— See Tent. 

Bee Tree.— A tree, the trunk or a branch of which is hollow 
and inhabited by bees. 
Bee Veil.— See Veil. 

Bee-Worm. — An old name for the larva of the bee. — Bay. 
Bell-Glass.— A glass vessel, shaped somewhat like a bell. 
They are used to a considerable extent as 
surplus receptacles by English bee-keepers. 
They present a very neat appearance, and 
when the comb is built in fancy shape, as 
shown in the figure, they are quite orna- 
mental on the table. But honey stored in 
such glasses costs a good deal more than 
when stored in, ordinary sections. 

Black Bee.— 1. The common honey bee; 
the kind usually kept in box hives. Called 
bell-glass. also Brown Bee and German Bee. See Bace. 

2. Kobber bees that have lost their hair and 
become black and shiny were supposed by Huber to be a dis- 
tinct kind of bee, and in several works they are mentioned by 
the name of Black Bees. They are, however, only the common 




PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 15 

Bottom-Board. —The board which forms the bottom of the 
hive. It may be either fixed or movable. The fixed bottom 
boards form part of the hive, while in the case of movable bot- 
tom boards, the hive is simply placed on them. Both kinds 
have their advantages and disadvantages. Van Deusen has 
invented a clamp by means of which the bottom board may be 
made either fixed or movable at will, thus securing all the ad- 
vantages of both systems. 

Bottom Bail. — The lower horizontal bar of a frame. 

Box Hive. — A hive consisting of a plain box with a few cross- 
sticks for supporting the combs, In such a hive the comb and 
bees cannot be examined or handled and most of the operations 
of modern bee-keeping are impossible. Box hives are therefore 
things of the past, and bee-keepers who are behind the times 
are called "box-hive men." When we look back, however, and 
see what was accomplished by such men as Quinby, using box 
hives, we cannot fail to be impressed with the fact that thorough 
scientific work will always produce good results even with the 
poorest implements and in the face of the most formidable diffi- 
culties. 

Those who have read the first edition of Quinby's " Mys- 
teries of Bee-Keeping " — a work which will always be a classic 
no matter what improvements may be made in the art, will be 
greatly amused at the following extract from the latest edition of 
an English standard authority, " Brande's Dictionary of Science, 
Literature and Art." Under the head " Hive," we find this sub- 
section: 

" American Box Hives. The well known circumstance that bees 
often collect enormous stores of honey when building their 
combs in a large space (as under the roof of a house) has led to 
the design of hives of immense size. Some employed in 
America have been found as large as sentry-boxes. These large 
boxes are easily stocked by supporting a hive of bees on a few 
cross-bars placed in the interior, when the bees rapidly extend 
the combs below the small hive, often completely filling the box. 
The plan is not so advantageous as might at first appear, as all 
the combs contain wood and bee-bread, and the honey yielded is 
consequently always impure, and moreover, is not easily obtained 
without destroying the bees." 

Shades of the lamented Quinby —how is this for a fair repre- 
sentation of the American Box Hive ! ! This is about on a par 
with Blyth's "poisonous honey, from the Savannas of New 
Jersey." See Honey. 

Box Honey.— Comb-honey (q. v.) stored by the bees in boxes. 

Breed. — n. A term applied by stock breeders to races arti- 
ficially produced and established. It is in this that a breed 
differs from a race (q. v.) and both differ from a variety in that 
they have been so established, either by careful selection and 
culture in the case of breeds or by long-continued and potent 



16* i)ICTIONABY Otf 

and natural influences in the case of races, that all danger of 
"crying-back" (q. v.) is past Owing, probably to various 
hitherto insurmountable difficulties in the way of mating, we 
have no " breeds " of bees; we have races and strains (q. v.) but 
no breeds. 

Breed. — v. 1. To raise young. In bee-keeping this is gener- 
ally called brood-rearing or brood-raising. See Raise. 

2. To produce a distinct breed. To do this requires thorough 
knowledge of the nature of the animals under experiment and 
careful attention to certain laws which are tolerably well under- 
stood as they affect the higher animals, but have not been investi- 
gated in the case of insects. But from the fact that scientific 
apiculture is an art of but a few years growth, we may reasonably 
hope for as great advances in this direction as has been made in 
the case of cattle and horses. 

For the present, however, we can only follow the laws which 
have been found to obtain in the breeding of cattle, and await 
the discoveries which it is hoped that careful experimental in- 
vestigation will give us. 

1. In attempting to establish a new breed or to improve an 
old one, we must, contrary to the usual opinion, pursue a relent- 
less system of breeding in and in, and itis here that the skill 
and judgment of the expert breeder will be most fully shown. 
We have on the one hand the danger of weakening the constitu- 
tion of our stock, and on the other, the danger of producing a 
lot of mongrels without any fixed characteristics. The experi- 
ence of all great cattle breeders has shown that it is only by in 
and in breeding that the tendency to " cry back " can be elimin- 
ated, and these men have also shown that when sufficient care is 
exercised in the selection of the breeding stock, the danger of 
weakening the constitution is not to be feared. In this connec- 
tion it should be remembered that all the well-marked native 
races of bees must have been produced by a series of in and in 
breedings, combined with a system of natural selection, which 
allowed the survival of none but the fittest— all the weak and 
non-prolific, and all the poor honej'-gatherers being killed off 
during severe seasons. It is the same here as with the great 
herds of cattle and horses which roam at large in various 
countries. The most powerful and active bull or stallion obtains 
the leadership of the herd and breeds in and in with his own 
cousins, sisters, and even daughters, until one of his progeny, 
more powerful than he, displaces him in turn. But here we 
have the weak and feeble calves and foals selected by the forces 
of nature with better judgment than ever man exercised and 
killed off by the inclemency of the weather as surely as ever 
butcher's knife did its work. 

2. It will be found that certain males and females have the power 
to perpetuate their own characteristics in their progeny more 
powerfully than others. This is a most important factor in any 
attempt to build up a new breed, or to maintain or improve a 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 17 

certain strain. We see it marked in the human family where 
certain men and women have given origin to a long line of 
representatives which possess marked characteristics. Stock 
breeders are quite familiar with the fact, and there are certain 
strains of cattle specially valuable for milk, butter or flesh 
which owe their origin to some well known cow or bull. 

3. It will be found that the influence of the male is in general 
(not always) more powerful than the influence of the female 
provided he is pure bred. Thus far too little attention has been 
paid to the character of the drones, though this is not to be 
wondered at when we consider the great difficulty of the sub- 
ject. We must remember that it would be almost impossible to 
select an individual drone as we select a bull from a cattle-herd 
or a queen from an apiary. It is even difficult to make sure of 
getting our queens mated with the drones from any given hive, 
but even in the face of all these difficulties, the importance of the 
subject must not be forgotten. 

There are other points which will readily occur to the scientific 
breeder. Thus we must not forget that the impregnated female 
is herself influenced by the male. This has not the same im- 
portance with bees that it has with cattle, but how far the 
impregnation of the queen may influence her drone progeny is a 
point that cannot bear to be overlooked. 

Lastly, the "environment," as evolutionists cail it, will, no 
doubt, have something to do with the production of excellence 
in any given breed, though less here than in cases where the 
mother may be trained or worked, as with cattle or horses. Pre- 
natal influences have a wonderful effect on the progeny of mam- 
mals, and may it not be that eggs obtained from a queen in the 
height of her productive power and activity will produce far 
better breeding stock than eggs from the same queen when her 
energies are dormant or not fully developed ? This brings up 
the important question of the best age for breeding queens. 
And does not the quality of the eggs laid by the queen in the 
early part of the season have quite as much to do with the 
quality of the queens produced as does the so-called swarming 
impulse on the part of K the workers ? 

All these questions deserve careful experimental consideration. 
They may be suggested by theoretical reasoning but they cannot 
be settled in any such way. 

It is in the process of natural selection, however, that the en- 
vironment will aid us. No stock that has had fair play during 
the summer and fails to be ready to meet the winter, should be 
kept for breeding. We may feed and keep them for other 
purposes, but nature would have destroyed them, and we should 
not attempt to perpetuate them either in the male or female line. 

Breeding "In and In."— When a queen is fecundated by a 
drone which is near of kin to her (as brother or cousin), the 
progeny is said to be the result of breeding "in and in," 



18 DiCTIONABT OFJ 

Bridal Trip. -Wedding flight (q. v.). 

Brimstone. — n. Sulphur. The word literally means bum stone, 
and is applied, only to sulphur in the form of solid masses like 
stones or rolls. 

Brimstone. — v. To expose to the fumes produced by burning 
sulphur. See Sulphur. When used in connection with bee- 
keeping the word signifies the destruction of a colony for the 
sake of obtaining their wax and honey. 

Broad Frame.— See Wide Frame. 

Brood. — Young bees while in the various stages between the 
egg and the bee which has emerged from the cell. The use of 
the word brood in this connection is very old. Skeat tells us 
that in JElfric's Homilies (A.D. 975) speaking of bees, the 
writer says: "Of tham hunige hi bredath heord brod " — i.e., 
with the honey they nourish their brood. 

Brooding" Bees. — The nurse bees (q. v.) are so called by some 
European writers. 

Brood-Cluster. — The cluster of bees which cover the brood- 
nest. 

Brood Comb.— Combs containing brood. The term does not 
apply to empty worker or drone comb which might contain 
brood but does not. Such comb is called either icorker comb or 
drone comb according as the case may be. 

Brood-Drones. — Drones in the brood state. See Egg. 

Brood Frame.— A frame of the right width to receive brood- 
comb. 

Brood-Nest. — That space in the hive which is occupied by the 
queen for laying. In fall, winter, and early spring, this space is 
confined to a small portion of the centre of the hive, and includes 
the centre space on two or more combs, but in warm weather the 
queen sometimes lays in combs at some distance from the brood- 
nest, and even in the boxes arranged for comb honey. But 
there is always a spot where the rearing of young is specially 
carried on, and this is the brood-nest. 

Brood-rearing- ) - ' . . 

Brood-raising \ The raismg - of brood * See Raism 9- 

Brood- Workers. — Worker bees in the condition of brood. 

See Egg. 

Brown Bee. — The common honey bee; the kind usually kept 
in box hives. Called also Black Bee and German Bee. See Race. 

Buckwheat Swarm. — A late swarm produced by the stimulus 
caused by the great flow of honey obtained from buckwheat. 

Bunt. — This term properly signifies smut or the fungus (Uredo 
foetida) which produce disease in grain, but it is also used as a 
name for the puff-ball (q. v.), 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 19 

Cage, Queen. See Q,ueen Cage. 

Candy. — n. This favorite material for feeding bees is prepared 
by boiling sugar syrup until it is sufficiently condensed. There 
are three forms depending upon the method of preparation. 

1. Sugar candy, so called. This is sugar crystallized by leaving 
the saturated syrup in a warm place (90° to 100° Fahr.), the 
shooting of the crystals being promoted by placing sticks, or 
threads, at small distances from each other in the liquor; it is 
also deposited from compound syrups, and does not seem 
to retain much of the foreign substances with which they are 
loaded. Brown sugar candy is prepared in this way from raw 
sugar; white sugar, from refined sugar; and red sugar, from a 
syrup of refined sugar which has been colored red by means of 
some coloring matter of which cochineal is to be preferred. 

2. Boiled candy or barley-sugar (q. v.). This is prepared by 
boiling the syrup, the several stages of the process being as fol- 
lows: Well clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is boiled 
until a " skimmer " dipped into it, and a portion "touched " be- 
tween the forefinger and thumb, on opening them, is drawn into 
a small thread, which crystallizes and breaks. This is called a 
"weak candy height." If boiled again, it will draw into a larger 
string, and if bladders may be blown through the "drippings" 
from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired the second de- 
gree, and is now called " bloom sugar." After still further boil- 
ing, it arrives at the state called " leathered sugar." To determine 
this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it over the pan, then give it 
a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers. 
The next degree is that of " crackled sugar," in which state the 
sugar that hangs to a stick dipped into it, and put directly into 
a pan of cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard and 
snaps. The last stage of preparing this article reduces it to 
what is called " carmel sugar," proved by dipping a stick first 
into the sugar, and then into cold water, when, on the moment 
it touches the latter, it will, if matured, snap like glass. It has 
now arrived at a "full candy height." Care must be taken 
throughout that the fire is not too fierce, as, by flaming up 
against the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolor the sugar, 
converting a portion of it into caramel which is said to be 
poison to bees in cold weather; hence the boiling is best con- 
ducted by steam heat. 

Any flavor or color may be given to the candy by adding the 
coloring matter to the syrup before boiling it, or the flavoring 
essences when the process is nearly complete. 

For feeding bees the earlier stages are to be preferred as con- 
taining more water and as being softer and more easily rasped 
down . 

3. White candy. This is prepared by boiling a strong syrup 
until it becomes solid on cooling. While still hot the pan is 
placed in snow or ice water and constantly stirred until the en- 
tire contents consolidate into a white mass. Candv in this con- 



20 DICTIONARY OF 

dition absorbs a large quantity of water and is easily used by 
the bees. As a winter food we have found it excellent. It may 
be moulded into cakes or bricks and laid over the cluster, or it 
may be packed in wired frames and hung by the side of the bees. 

4. There is also a preparation which is known as "Good's 
Candy " or " Sholtz Candy." Langstroth, in his Hive and Honey 
Bee, gives the following directions for preparing it. 

"Rev. M. Scholtz, of Lower Silesia (Europe), recommends 
the following mixture for feeding bees: "Take one pint of 
honey and four pounds of powdered lump sugar;* heat the 
honey, without adding water, and mix it with the sugar, working 
them together to a stiff doughy mass. When thus thoroughly 
incorporated, cut it into slices, or form it into cakes or lumps, 
and wrap them in a piece of coarse linen and place them in 
the frames. Thin slices, enclosed in linen, may be pushed 
down between the combs. The plasticity of the mass enables 
the apiarist to apply the food in any manner he may desire." 

Candy. — v. When honey or sugar crystallize from a solution 
they are said to candy. Candied honey is that which has solid- 
ified. 

Cap. — n. 1. When the cover of a hive is made in the form of a 
box it is sometimes called a cap. 

2. The cover of a cell — either brood or honey. Sometimes 
called the capping. 

Cap. — v. To cover a cell or seal it over. 

Capped Brood.— Sealed brood (q. v.). 

Capped Honey. — Sealed Honey (q. v.). 

Cappings ) The caps of honey cells which are removed when 

Caps ) ^he none y i s extracted. 

Card.— A frame filled with honey comb. A sheet of honey- 
comb. 

Carniolan Bee. — A race of bees found in the mountains of 
Southwestern Austria. The workers are light grey, and are re- 
markable for the gentleness of their dispositions. See Race. 

Carrier Bees. — Workers that are old enough to forage. 

Cases for Sections. —This term is used indiscriminately to 
denote two distinct devices: 1. Wide frames filled with sections 
and hung in the hive like ordinary frames. 

2. Crates or boxes in which sections are placed and held while 
on the hive while the bees are filling them, or packed for ship- 
ment. 

Cashiered Stocks.— Stocks of which the bees are either de- 
stroyed or united with other stocks. 

Casts. — This term is usually and properly applied only to 



* The sugar must be reduced to very fine powder. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



21 



" second, third, etc., swarms," but some authors use it to denote 
any swarm. 

Caterpillar. — This term properly applies only to the larva of 
lepidopterous insects (moths and butterflies). According to 
some etymologists, it should be applied only to those larvae that 
are hairy — the word being literally a hairy she-cat (Old French — 
chate pileuse). Webster gives a stealer of food (Cater, food, and 
piller, robber). 

Caucasian Bee. — A race of bees found amongst the Caucasian 
Mountains and said to be very active and amiable. 

Cell. — Literally a small house or room. The compartments of 
the honey comb in which the bees store honey and raise their 
young. They are of various sizes and forms — round, penta- 
gonal, hexagonal, etc. See Comb, Queen Cell, etc. 

Cell, Royal.— See Queen Cell. 

Chaff Hive. — A hive with double walls, the space between 
them being filled with chaff or some porous material which will 
prevent the passage of heat, and consequently will keep the 
hives warm in winter and cool in summer. 




SECTION OF CHAFF HIVE. 



A section of one of the most popular forms — the "Sim- 
plicity" — is shown in the accompanying engraving where A, A, 
are the outer sides; C C, the inner walls, and B, B, chaff. H is 
the entrance, and E, E, a movable cover. It will be seen that 
this hive is a two-story hive by construction, though of course it 



22 DICTIONARY OF 

is used as a one-story hive in winter — the upper story being 
filled with a bag made of any cheap stuff and packed with chaff. 
A frame of comb is shown in the lower story with its end facing 
the entrance H, and three frames, I, are shown in the upper 
story and lying across it. 

Chrysalid ) Plural, chrysalides. A condition into which the 
Chrysalis f caterpillars of butterflies and moths, and the larvae 
of most other insects, pass before they change into the perfect 
insect. It corresponds to the terms aurelia, nymph and pupa. 
At one time it was confined to the lepidopterous insects (insects 
which have wings covered with powdery scales — butterflies and 
moths) but is now applied to the pupae of other insects. The 
term pupa is, however, to be preferred in the case of the bee. 

Clamp. — 1. A movable piece which fastens two or more parts 
of anything together. Thus we have clamps for fastening the 
bottom board to the hive; for securing the sides of the hives to 
each other where they are made movable, and for other purposes. 

2. A piece of wood or a batten put across a board to strengthen 
it. Clainps are often nailed to the underside of bottom boards. 

3. A number of stocks piled together and covered for winter 
protection. 

4. Frames and boxes piled together and properly arranged so 
as to be covered with an outer case. 

Cleansing' Flight.— See Flight, Cleansing. 

Closed-End Frames. See Frames, Closed end. 

Cluster. — v. Bees are said to cluster when the}' form a com- 
pact mass, each bee holding on to her neighbor by means of the 
hooks at the ends of the feet. 

Cluster. — n. 1. Any mass of bees which hold together by 
means of their foot-hooks. 

2. When "the cluster " is spoken of, reference is had to the 
compact mass into which the bees of a colony form themselves 
when reposing quietly in their hives especially in winter. 

Cocoon. — The silken case in which the larva of the bee or 
other insect envelops itself when it passes into the pupa state. 

2. When cocoons are spoken off in connection with the apiaiw, 
the cocoons of the bee-moth are generally meant. 

Collateral System. — Placing small hives or boxes at the sides 
of the main hive or, as Nutt called it, the Pavilion. 

Colonizing 1 . — A method of dividing colonies by inducing them 
to enter and fill a second hive placed in communication with the 
original one. Used only with box hives and open to vevy 
serious objections. 

Colony.— The bees of a stock. (See Stock.) A complete col- 
ony consists of qireen, workers, and at certain seasons, drones. 
The test of a perfect colony seems to be its power of perpetu- 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



23 



ating itself, and for this the queen and workers are all that is 
required. "We sometimes speak of a queenless colony, and the 
expression is not incorrect, but it is equivalent to saying that 
the colony is not full or perfect. 

The distinction between a colony and a swarm is simply this: 
A swarm is a new colony just separated from the parent stock. 
See Swarm. 

Colt. — A. name sometimes given to the second after-swarm. 
The" third is called a fitly. See Filly. 

Comb. — A number of cells built together so as to form a 
sheet. Comb is always built with cells on both sides, the 
division between the ends of the cells being called the septum 
and serving as a bottom for both series of cells, thus saving 
wax. The cells are not placed exactly opposite each other, but 
the centres of the bottoms are arranged quincunx fashion (see 
quincunx). These bottoms are not flat but concave (as seen from 
the interior of the cells), being formed of three rhomboidal 
plates, consequently the cells are a little deeper than just half 
the thickness of the sheet of comb, which for brood is about 
15-16ths of an inch. Such comb weighs about ^ lb. to the square 
foot, and it is said to require about 5 lbs. of honey per square 
foot to make it. Some writers, however, think that the amount 
of honey used in making wax is greatly over-estimated. As it 
is more than probable that beec cannot altogether control the 
production of wax, any moro than other secretions, it may be 
that tho wasto incurred in tho production of comb is not quite as 
great as has been supposed."' When filled and sealed, brood 
comb weighs about 5 lbs. per square foot, but the cells may be 
lengthened out so as to hold a much greater quantity. Koot 
says as much as 10 lbs. per square foot. Since honey varies very 
much in specific gravity (from 1.261 to 1.450. See Honey) even 
when sealed, we must not accept these figures as correct in all 




WORKER COMB. 



DRONE COMB. 



Three kinds of comb are found in most hives— worker, drone 
and store, each being indicated by the cells of which it is 
formed. The cells of worker comb are shown of actual size in 
the figure. Five of these cells, placed in line, measure just one 



24 DICTIONARY OF 

inch, so that each square inch contains 25, and the surface on 
both sides contains 50 cells. An ordinary Langstroth frame, 
moderately filled with brood (say a space six inches by eleven) 
will contain 3,300 young bees, and three such frames will pro- 
duce about 10,000— a number which constitutes quite a nice little 
swarm. It is easily seen, therefore, how rapidly weak stocks 
may be built up during warm weather by giving them occasion- 
ally a frame of sealed brood. 

The cells of drone comb are much larger — four of them 
placed side by side measuring one inch or 16 to the square inch. 

The depths of both worker and drone cells are the same, but 
as the caps of the worker cells are flat while those of the drone 
cells are very considerably convex, the latter really has what is 
equivalent to a greater depth. 

In store comb — that is, comb for storing honey — the cells are 
often irregular in size and shape. Honey is often stored both in 
worker and drone cells, but the bees often build comb in corners 
and out of the way places and use it for storing. Cells for 
storing honey are generally much deeper than brood cells — 
sometimes as much as two inches deep and turned up at the 
ends. See also Honey-comb, Wax. 

Comb, Artificial.— All attempts hitherto made to construct 
comb artifically have failed. We frequently see the article men- 
tioned in the newspapers, but in all such cases the writer draws 
on his imagination for his facts, and a very poor imagination at 
that. Thus we have seen it stated dozens of times that comb 
honey was now manufactured on a large scale by first making 
comb of paraffine, and then filling it with flavored glucose. It 
is needless to say that as yet this cannot be done. There is no 
end to the projects of this kind which might be suggested. 
Thus we might propose the manufacture of delicate india rubber 
comb, in which the bees might store honey, and then, instead of 
passing it through an expensive extractor use a common wringing 
machine to squeeze out the honey. 

Shortly after the introduction of the movable frame, bee- 
keepers become deeply impressed with the importance of util- 
izing old wax in the manufacture of new comb, and various 
plans for getting the bees to work up old wax were proposed, 
but none have been successful except what is known as Founda- 
tion (q. v.). This, however, cannot be called "artificial comb," 
simply because it is not comb but only foundation. 

That bees would use artificial comb for all purposes was very 
fully shown by that most ingenious apiarist — the late M. Quinby. 
He constructed comb, with proper sized cells, out of very light 
sheet metal, and coated it with a very thin layer of wax. A small 
section of this artificial comb when placed in the brood nest 
was used by the queen to receive her eggs, and which hatched 
into larvae that were duly nursed by the bees, and finally 
matured, As an experiment, this was a most important step; 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



25 



but thus far, a really practical article of artificial comb is a 
thing of tbe future. 

Comb-Bars. — Bars or slats to which comb is attached and 
from which it hangs in the bar-hives. 

Comb Basket. — That part of the extractor which receives and 
holds the comb. The term is some- 
times used instead of comb box or 
comb carrier, but this application of 
it should be avoided. 

A comb basket for small pieces 
of comb is shown in the engraving. 

Comb Box. — Another name for 
comb carrier (q. v.). 
Comb Bucket.— A comb carrier 

(q. v.). 

Comb Carrier. — A box made of 
such a size as to hold one or more 
frames of comb so that they may be 
easily carried about. It should have 
a close-fitting cover so that the honey 
shall be protected from flies and robber bees, and the brood 
from chilling drafts. It may be made of tin or very thin boards — 
one important point being to have it quite tight. The engraving 
shows a very neat and convenient article made of tin by Root, 
of Medina, O. 




COMB BASKET FOB SMALL 
PIECES. 




COMB-CARRIER. 



For the confusion of names in regard to this article, see 
introduction. 

Comb Cutting.— See Pruning. 

Comb Foundation,— See- Foundation, This term was sometimes 



26 DICTIONAHY OF 

used by old writers to signify a starter for which, of course, they 
used natural comb. 

Comb Guide. — Any arrangement by which the bees are in- 
duced to build comb in the exact place that it is wanted. The 
best comb-guide is a strip of foundation. Before foundation was 
invented, small pieces of comb were used, and the term was also 
applied to the edge of the top bar of the frame. 

Comb-Holder. — A device for supporting a frame of comb after 
it has been removed from the hive and until the bee-keeper is 
ready to return it. In some cases the comb-holder is a separate 
stand, and it is then perhaps more properly called a comb-stand 




COMB-HOLDER. 

or comb-horse. The engraving shows a very convenient form of 
holder which may be hooked over the edge of the hive and 
which will hold the first frame of comb, so as to give more room 
in the hive while examining the others. 

Comb Honey. — Honey in the comb as distinguished from ex- 
tracted or strained honej 7 . 

Comb Horse.— See Comb-Holder. 

Comb Priming. — See Pruning. 

Comb Roller. — A German device for uncapping when ex- 
tracting. It consists of a roller with short wires projecting 
from its entire surface. When passed over a comb it breaks the 
caps of the cells so that the honey is easily thrown out. It is 
not as good as the knife. 

Comb Stand.— See Oomb Holder. 

Condemned Bees.— Bees that are to be consigned to the brim- 
stone pit. 

Coppet.— A hackle (q. v.). 

Corbicula. — Literally, a little basket. The pollen-basket 
found on the legs of the bee. 

Corners.— Metal. This term is properly applied to pieces of 
sheet metal which are fastened to the corners of wooden frames 
for the purpose of strengthening them. The term has, however, 
been used to designate pieces of metal which, when applied to 
the upper corners of the ordinaiw hanging frames, form the 
projecting supports from which the rest of the frame hangs. 
Such so-called corners are shown at c in the figure. 



PKACTICAL APICULTUEE. 



27 




A more appropriate name for these would be metal arms. 
Metal arms Lave been constructed in various ways — of wire and 
of sheet tin. The usual way is to make them of tin, and they 
are so formed that they may be folded round the corner of the 
frame so as to hold firmly and present two thin edges by which 
they rest upon the bearers or rabbets. The advantage of metal 
corners is that the bees cannot fasten the frames to the rabbets 
with propolis. The frames are therefore easily set free for ex- 
amination and do not require to be pried loose. The disadvan- 
tages are that the frames move about very easily when the hive 
is carried. Some very able bee-keepers do not like them on this 
account. 

Cover Board.— Honey board. 

Crate. — A skeleton box for holding sections either on the hive 
or on their way to market. 

Cross. — a. Irritable; easily made an gry. 

Cross. — n. When two races or breeds are bred together the 
progeny is said to be a cross. See Hybrid. 

Cl*OSS-Mated. — A queen of any breed which has met a drone 
of another breed may be said to be cross-mated. This term is 
greatly to be preferred to the word "impurely" mated, which 
really has no meaning whatever. 

Cross Sticks. — Sticks, or spleets as they are sometimes called, 
which are placed in box and straw hives to support the combs. 

Crown Board.— Honey board. 

Cry Back. — It is a curious fact, well known to breeders of the 
higher animals, that the effect of a cross will frequently disap- 
pear for several generations and then appear again in a very 
marked degree. This principle is known to physicians as 
Atavism (q. v.), and amongst breeders of stock such progeny is 
said to "cry back," — a term derived from a well known hunting 
expression. It is therefore never safe to breed from two cross- 
bred animals. Crossing between pure bred animals is per- 
missible when we intend to use the cross itself or when we 
intend to breed from it by mating with a pure male or female, 
but not otherwise. 



28 DICTIONARY OF 

Cushion. — A bag or similar receptacle filled with some porous 
material which does not conduct heat freely. Cushions are used 
to protect the bees, and may be used both on top, sides or bot- 
tom of the frames. When used at the sides, the form employed 
is generally called a division board (q. v.). 

Cyprian Bee. — A race of bees found in the Island of Cyprus. 
The'y resemble the Italians very closely. Prof. Cook says " they 
may be distinguished by the bright, leather-colored lunule 
which tips their thorax posteriorly, and by the fact that the 
under side of their bodies is yellow to the tip. They are more 
active than are the Italians, and the queens are more prolific. 
The good qualities of the Italians seem all to be exaggerated in 
the Cyprian, except the trait of amiability. The Cyprian bees 
are second only to the Egyptian in irritability. That they will 
become less cross with handling is to be expected." See Bace. 

Dalmatian Bee. — A race of bees found in Dalmatia. They 
are slim, wasp-like, and very black, the wings of the abdomen 
being banded with a light yellow. See Bace. 

Dead Air-Space. — See Air Space, Dead. 

Decoy Hive. — A hive properly arranged for the reception of 
bees and set out in the hope that a swarm will take possession 
of it. This device is very old, but has never been generally suc- 
cessful, although occasionally a swarm will be secured by it. It 
was described by Markham in his ' Countrie Farm " (1610). 

Deprivation. — Removing honey from the hives. 

Deserting Colony. — Colonies frequently leave their hives in a 
body in fall or spring, when their supplies are exhausted or other 
conditions are unfavorable. Colonies under such circumstances 
have been called "Abnormal Swarms" and "Absconding 
Swarms" (q. v.), but neither of these terms is quite applicable 
under the circumstances. The term Deserting Colony expresses 
the exact condition of affairs. 

Diarrhoea. — Generally called Dysentery (q. v. ). 

Dipping Plate.— A plate of wood or metal which on being 
dipped in melted wax becomes coated with a thin layer or sheet 
of this material. This sheet is then peeled off, and after being 
passed through a proper mill or press is known as comb founda- 
tion, or simply as foundation (contracted to f d n). 

Distance Guides ) Pi ns G r blocks attached to the sides of the 
Distance Pins f top bar of a frame to aid in keeping it in 
position, and at a proper distance from the others. 

Dividing*. — A method of artificial swarming by dividing a 
colony. 

Division Board. — A board used for dividing a hive so as to 
contract the space in which the colony is kept. They are of two 
kinds: The plain ones consist simply of a thin board; the chaff 



PRACTICAL APICCLTUEE. 



29 



cushion division board consists of a frame about two inches 
thick, the sides being covered with very thin boards, and the 
hollow being filled with chaff. The latter are a most excellent 
device for preventing the escape of heat from the cluster in 
winter and early spring. Some writers think it is "too much 
machinery," but we think the advantages greatly overbalance 
the very slight extra complication. A Chaff Cushion Division 
Board is shown in the annexed engraving. We believe this con- 
trivance is due to A. I. Root. 




CHAFF CUSHION DIVISION BOARD. 



Dollar Queen.^See Queen, Dollar. 

Driving Bees.— Bees may be caused to leave their combs and 
hive and pass into an empty box by continued rapping on the 
sideT of the hive. This is often done for the purpose of trans- 
ferring, making new swarms, etc., and is called driving. 

Drone. — A male bee. 

Drone Broo'l. — The common name for brood which produces 
drones. More properly termed brood drones. 

Drone Coml). — Comb with cells large enough to contain 
drone brood. 

Drone Eg'g. — An expression generally used to denote those 
eggs which produce drones. More properly termed egg drones. 

Drone Trap. — A trap for catching drones. It generally con- 
sists of a cage of some sort with meshes or wires through 
which the workers can pass freely, but through which the droius 
cannot pass. Into this cage the drones are led by a long or 
crooked passage so that they cannot find their way back. The 
workers fly off and the drones are kept prisoners. 

The modern improvements in hives, and especially the inven- 
tion of foundation, enable us to control completely the produc- 
tion of drones, and it is better to prevent their being reared 
than to waste honey in producing them. 



30 DICTIONABY OF 

Sometimes, however, the bees tear down worker comb arid 
raise drones. They may then be destroyed while in the brood 
condition. Shaving their heads off is a simple method. Some- 
times we wish to remove them after they have emerged; in that 
case the drone trap is of great use. 

Drumming. — To rap or beat the sides of a hive for the pur- 
pose of alarming the bees and causing them to leave their comb 
and hive and pass into another receptacle. See Driving Bees and 
Forcing Swarms. 

Dummies. — A term applied by some English writers to 
division boards. A contraction for dummy frames. 

Duplet. — The hive set over or under another. — Keys. 

Duplicate. — To set one hive over another. 

Dysentery. — A disease in which bees void large quantities of 
very soft fasces. Cause and cure are not yet fully understood. 
Even the nature of the disease is unknown. Some claim that 
diarrhoea is the proper name for the disease, and probably it is, 
but the advances thus far made in insect pathology do not war- 
rant us in coming to a decision. It may be, however, that ere 
long the pathological histology of the bee will be so well 
understood that this point will be fully decided. In the mean- 
time, there can be no objection to the use of the old word. 

Egg. — The first condition of the bee after it leaves the 
body of the mother. When first extruded, and before it has 
been exposed to the air, the egg has a soft glutinous surface 
which enables it to adhere to any object which it may touch. 
The queen places it at the bottom of the cell and it remains as 
shown in the figure which is considerably mag- 
nified. 

When a colony is in good order all the eggs 
H in the hive are laid by the queen, but it some- 
ffl times happens that fertile workers (q. v.) are 
present, and they too lay eggs. Such eggs are 
often, and we think not improper]} 7 , called 
worker eggs. The queen lays eggs under 
three different conditions, and capable of 
producing three different kinds of bees — 
queens, workers and drones. Such eggs 
egg deposited ar © generally called queen eggs, loorker eggs, 
in cell. and drone eggs, but it is obvious that this 

mode of expression is faulty. All eggs 
laid under proper conditions are queen eggs ; there are no "drone 
eggs," for drones never lay eggs, and by " worker eggs " may be 
meant eggs laid by workers. If, however, we regard the word 
egg in this case as denoting the condition of the bee, we may 
be enabled to express exactly what we want to say without cir- 
cumlocution or doubt. The terms egg queens, egg workers, egg 
drones, express the facts precisely. In the case of eggs laid by 




PBACTICAIi APJ GUI/TUBE. 31 

workers, which eggs always produce drones, "worker eggs" 
would be proper, and the expression "worker egg drones" 
would distinguish them from "queen egg drones." 

Egg Drone. — A drone in the condition of an egg. An egg 
which will produce a drone. Such eggs, when queen eggs, are 
known by being laid in drone cells. Worker eggs (that is, eggs 
laid by workers) are laid in any kind of cell. 

Eg'g" Queen. — This is undoubtedly the same as an egg worker. 

Egg Worker. — A worker in the condition of an egg. Such 
eggs are always laid by queens, and are really queen eggs. 

Egyptian Bee. — This bee was at one time regarded as a dis- 
tinct species and named apis fasciata, but it is now generally 
thought to be a mere variety or race belonging to apis mellifica, 
the common honey bee. 

"The German apiarist, Herr Vogel, has given special attention 
to this variety, and has discovered in it some interesting pecu- 
liarities. It never gathers propolis, but uses wax in its place; 
and it seems proof against the cold. But the most singular fact 
that has come to his knowledge is, that there exist regularly in 
an Egyptian colony some twelve or so small drone-laying 
queens, which would be called fertile workers but that they have 
a distinctive appearance, consisting in the waxen yellow of their 
breasts— a feature which is possessed also by the drones of their 
progeny. " — Neighbour. 

Under these conditions it will be interesting to study the 
question of hybridity in connection with this bee, and we have 
made arrangements to do so. 

Prof. Cook says of these bees: "They are very yellow, in- 
tensely cross, and frequently have fertile workers. They are 
probably the bees that are famous in history, as having'been 
moved up and down the Nile in rude boats or rafts, as the 
varying periods of nectar-secreting bloom seemed to demand." 

Eke. — An addition to a hive, making it larger. This term was 
generally used in connection with the old straw hives or skeps, 
and by it was meant an additional ring or hoop, the same diam- 
eter as the original straw hive, placed under the old hive. Neigh- 
bour defines eke as half a hive placed below the main hive, while 
a whole hive used in the same way is called a "nadir" (q. v.). 
We believe, however, that any addition to the old straw hive 
was called an " eke," which merely signifies an addition. 

Emerging Bees \ Young bees just leaving the cells in which 
Emerging Brood \ they were raised. The term hatching 

brood is frequently but improperly applied to young bees in this 

condition. See Hatch. 

Engraft. — A queen cell is said to be engrafted when it is 
taken from one comb and so arranged in another that the bees, 
fasten it properly. 



32 



DICTIONARY OF 



Entrance. — The opening or passage through which bees enter 
and leave the hive. 

Entrance Blocks.— Blocks by means of which the entrance 
to a hive may be regulated as to size and position. 

Entrance Guard.— A device by means of which queens and 
drones are prevented from entering or leaving the hive while 
the workers have free passage. This is accomplished by fasten- 
ing in front of the usual entrance a strip of wood or metal, 
pierced with holes which are just large enough to admit a 




JONES' ENTRANCE GUARD. 



worker, but too small to allow a queen or drone to pass. A very 
excellent form of this device is that shown in the figure and 
known as Jones' Entrance Guard. It is made of zinc, the open- 
ings in which do not change by being alternately wet and dry. 

Extractor. — A machine by means of which the honey is 
thrown out of the cells by centrifugal force. The honey is col- 
lected in suitable vessels and the combs, quite uninjured are re- 
turned to the hive. A very good form of this machine is shown 
in the figure on the opposite page. 

Extracted Honey. — Honey that has been taken from the 
combs by means of the extractor. Prior to the invention of the 
extractor, honey was obtained in a liquid state by mashing the 
comb and straining out the honey. Honey obtained in this way 
from combs taken from the body of the hive (as in the old sys- 
tem of brimstoning) is always contaminated with bee-bread, the 
animal fluids of larvae and other impurities. It was called 
strained honey (q.v.), and this term should always be applied to it, 
while the term extracted honey should always be used to denote 
honey obtained by means of the extractor. 

Farina. — This word literally means flour, but it has been used 
occasionally by botanists to signify pollen, and consequently 
bee-keepers have sometimes used it in the same sense. But in 
view of the fact that true flour is used by bees as well as true 
pollen, it would be well to avoid the use of the word farina as a 
synonym for pollen. 

Fecundate. —To impregnate. The queen is fecundated during 
a successful wedding trip. The words fertile and fertilize are 
generally used where the words fecundated and fecundate ought to 
be employed. See Fertilize, 



PKACTlCAli APlCTILTtJEE. 



33 




EXTRACTOR. 



Feeder.— A device for holding bee-food in such a way that the 
bees can readily take it without being drowned. 

'! ) The use of the words fertile, fertilize and fer- 

rertllize V tilization as synonyms for fecundated, fecun- 

Fertilization ) date and fecundation, is greatly to be regretted. 
It is true that the word fertilization is used by botanists quite 
generally to signify the process by which the pollen renders the 
ovule fertile, and there are a few instances, outside of works on 
the bee, in which the same word is used to signify the act of 
fecundating the ovum in animals, but in the latter case its use is 
exceptional and, in the case of the queen bee, improper; because 
the word, if used in this sense, has two distinct meanings, and 
hence confusion is apt to arise. The word fertile means fruitful, 
and a queen bee maybe fruitful without having been fecundated. 
Indeed, we ordinarily speak of fertile workers, which are never 
fecundated. It is true that in both these cases, drones only are 



54 DICTIOStAKtf OF 

produced, but this does not alter the case; it would still be iin* 
possible to speak of either the queen or worker as unfruitful. If, 
however, we relegate the words under consideration to their 
proper places, and give them their most usual signification, we 
shall be able properly to speak of a fertile and fecundated queen 
as meaning one that is both fruitful and impregnated. See 
Fecundate. The subject is also discussed in our Introduction. 

Filly. — A fourth swarm, the third being called a colt (q. v.). 
A colt is a male foal; a filly is a female foal." In this country the 
term colt is applied to the young of the horse without distinction 
of sex, but this is an Americanism which ought to be carefully 
avoided by all who appreciate accuracy of language. 

Flight. — An after swarm or cast. 

Flight, Cleansing. — "When bees issue from the hive to void 
their faeces, after a long confinement, they are said to take a 
cleansing flight. 

Flight, Marriage ^ When tbe en makes an excnrs i on 

Flight, MatrimoniaU from the hive for the purpose of 

Flight, Wedding ) meeting a drone, she is said to make 
a marriage flight. Such a flight is said to be successful or unsuc- 
cessful according to obvious circumstances. 

Floor Board. — The bottom board (q. v.). 

Flour.— See Meal. 

Forage. — Bee-food obtained from natural sources. 

Force.— To drive. See Driving Bees. 

Forcing Box. — A box which is made to fit exactly over a hive 
so that the bees may be driven into it by the process of drum- 
ming (q. v.). In this way artificial swarms are forced, and the 
bees are sometimes removed from the hive previous to the pro- 
cess of transferring. 

Foul Brood. — The name of a disease which is -undoubtedly 
the most dangerous to which bees are subject. But little is 
really known regarding it with any degree of certainty. It is 
now generally thought to be due to the growth of a microscopic 
fungus, though this is by no means certain. It affects the brood 
but not the old bees, and generally gives evidence of its presence 
by its horrible odor. 

Foundation.— Sometimes contracted to fd n. This term was 
used by Huish and the older writers to signify guide comb, used 
to induce the bees to build comb on the slats or bars of the 
bar-hive. It is now applied exclusively to sheets of wax so 
stamped as to form an artificial beginning for comb-building. By 
many it is regarded as one of the three great inventions which 
have entirely revolutionized bee-keeping, while others, who 
by no means stand low down in the ranks of bee-keepers, 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



35 



think that the advantages to be derived 
from the use of foundation are greatly 
overestimated. 

One of the great objections to the 
use of foundation is its tendency to 
sag and thus distort the cells, which 
in this way are made longer in one 
direction than in another. This is 
very well shown in the engraving, 
where it will be seen that the cells 
are much larger from top to bottom 
than from side to side. To prevent 
this various devices have been em- 
eloxgated cells caused p i oyec L_ t he most efficient being either 

BY THE SAGGING OP FOUN- 1 ' f (see j, W{red) 

DATION-2W Quinby, ^ ^ .^^ ^ ^ ^ the foundft 

tion itself. 
Frame. —When the word frame is used by bee-keepers, with- 
out any qualification, it signifies the movable frame in which 
comb is fastened or built. Frames are usually made of three 
light strips of wood which, with a stronger one called the top- 
bar, form a rectangle. The parts of the frame are as follows: 





DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE FRAME. 



Top-bar shown at T in the engraving. 

End-bars " " E " 

Bottom " " B " 

Arms " " A " " 

Comb guide " " C " " 

The arms are the projecting portions of the top-bar which rest 
upon the rabbets or bearers. The comb-guide is tbat portion of 
the top-bar which projects downwards at C, and serves not only 



36 



DIOTIONABY OF 



to strengthen the top-bar, but to secure the sheet of foundation. 
Before foundation was introduced, bee-keepers relied upon this 
depending part of the top bar to guide the bees in making 
straight comb. Hence the term " comb-guide." 

There are several very different sizes of frames in use, the 
following being the dimensions of those most used: 

OUTSIDE DIMENSIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL FRAMES IN "USE. 

Note. — These are the outside dimensions in inches of the 
rectangular part; the arms project at each end f of an inch. 

Length. Depth. 

Adair 13| 1\\ 

American 12 12 

Gallup Ill hi 

Langstroth 17f 9 J 

Quinby 18* 1\\ 

Quinby frames with closed ends. . 19| 11 

Simplicity 17| 9J 

Standard of the British Association of Bee-Keepers, 14 inches 
long by 8J deep. 
Frame, Brood. — A frame filled with brood comb. 
Frame, Broad. — A wide frame for holding sections. It is 
hung in the hive like any other frame, but the comb being built 
in sections is easily removed. A better term is Wide Frame (q. v.) 
Frame Cover. — The mat or thin sheet used for covering the 
tops of the frames for the purpose of keeping the bees down. 
It is generally made of enamel cloth or duck. Sometimes im- 
properly called a quilt (q. v.). A mat (q. v.) is sometimes used 
instead of a cloth cover. 

Frame, Hanging'. — A frame made to hang in the hive from 
rabbets or bearers. See Frame, Standing. 

Frame Holder. — A stand for holding frames while the bee- 
keeper is at work. 

Frame, L. — The Langstroth frame. 
Frame Stand. — Same as Frame Holder (q. v.). 
Frame, Standing. — A frame which stands upon the bottom 
bar instead of hanging from arms resting on rabbets or bearers. 

Frame, Wired. —A frame in which vertical and diagonal wires 
are placed so as to prevent either the bottom bar or any comb or 
foundation that may be in the frame 
from sagging. 

Wired frames frequently have a 

\, / stout tin bar placed vertically in the 

\, 1 / center as shown in the figure. This 

1 \1/ we dislike on two grounds: 1. We 

i"ft m object to any metal in the hive except 

the very finest wire. Metal is too 

good v, conductor of heat, and carries 




WlilEJ) FRAME, 



PRACTICAL APICULTUEE. 37 

away the heat from the cluster too rapidly. 2. Anything that 
takes up permanently a large space in the centre of the combs 
is objectionable. 

We place a stiff wooden rod between the top bar and the bot- 
tom bar when the frame is wired, and as soon as the bees have 
built out the comb this rod is removed and its place is soon 
filled with comb. 

Frog-Cheese. — The puff ball. A large fungus used for smok- 
ing bees. 

Fume-Box. — "The bcx kept for the purpose of fuming." — 
Keys. Bees were "fumed "or "fumigated" by exposing them 
to the smoke of the puff-ball (q. v.) which stupefied them to such 
an extent that they fell from the combs. 

Fume ) To expose to stupefying fumes. The word is 

Fumigate j V ' never used in reference to destructive fumes 
like those of sulphur. 
Fuzz-Ball.— The puff-ball (q. v.). 

German Bee. — The common honey-bee; the kind usually kept 
in box hives. Called also Black Bee aud Brown Bee. Ste Race. 
Glassing. — Patting glass in sections or honey boxes. 

Glucose.— This word means sweet, and has no relation to the 
gluey or sticky qualities of the substance, as some writers on bee- 
keeping seem to think. It is a variety of sugar, and its chemical 
relations will be found in this work s. v. Sugar. 

Glucose is a natural constituent of the juice, and especially of 
the nectar of many plants, and as such, it is present in all 
honey. It is consequently exceedingly difficult to detect it when 
it is used as an adulterant of this article. 

Glucose, Artificial. — Artificial glucose is made from starch, 
the process being to change the chemical constitution of 
the starch by means of acids, and then remove the acids 
by means of lime. When moderately well made it contains 
no starch, as many bee-keepers seem to think, and no 
dextrine — and these two impurities are easily detected, as are 
also the sulphuric acid and calcic sulphate (plaster of paris), 
which are present in very rudely prepared specimens. Glucose 
can also be prepared from rags and from saw-dust; but when 
the latter material is used the product is so difficult to purify 
that it is fit only for the manufacture of the coarser kinds of 
alcohol used for varnishes, etc. 

In commerce, however, glucose is a name appropriated to a 
strong solution of grape sugar, in which the conversion of the 
starch is not carried quite to completion, and consequently 
some specimens contain a large proportion of dextrine. 
The term grape sugar is applied to the same compound, 
further converted, and reduced to a solid condition. Of 
the nature and characteristics of glucose most writers on bee* 



38 DICTIONARY OF 

culture have a very confused idea. The editor of one of our 
prominent bee-journals told his readers recently that it was "a 
liquid and always a liquid." This is a mistake, as every chem- 
ist knows, and we understand that some western manufacturers 
are now producing crystallized glucose which, in appearance, is 
almost equal to granulated caue sugar. 

It is unnecessary to give any tests for impurities in artificial 
glucose, as bee-keepers have no use for the article. It is never 
adulterated; as soon might one carry coals to Newcastle, or sin to 
the lower regions, as to think of adulterating glucose, which is 
itself the impersonation of adulteration, and is never used 
for any other purpose unless, indeed, it be the manufacture of 
alcohol. 

In view of the immense frauds to which the manufacture of 
glucose gives rise, its production and sale should be strictly re- 
gulated by law, if not altogether prohibited. It has lately 
received the endorsement of the National Academy of Sciences, 
but then we all know what the endorsement of the scientific men 
of this country is worth; a glance at the advertisements of the 
manufacturers of patent articles will give us all the information 
we need on that point. Pure glucose may be harmless from a 
physiological point of view — that is to say, it may not be an 
actual poison — but we must remember that it is never sold at 
retail under its own name. It cannot be found in open market, 
I offered to the consumer direct. It is used by the confectioner, 
the syrup manufacturer, the manufacturing grocer, and others, 
to adulterate their goods, and in every case it is sold for what it 
is not — that is, for pure cane sugar, while it is well known that 
its actual value, as judged by its sweetening power, is only one- 
third that of sugar. It is, therefore, a fraud, which tells most 
heavily against the poorer classes, and yet, to the extension of 
this fraud, the National Academy of Sciences lends the sanction 
of its name! Attempts have often been made by bee-keepers to 
employ glucose (both liquid and solid) as a food for bees. Some 
have reported fair success; others declare that it is very injurious. 
Many years ago (1859) the author was impressed with the idea 
that since glucose or grape sugar is a prominent constituent of 
honey, it ought to form a good food for bees. He therefore pre- 
pared some from potato starch and fed it to a small colony with 
success; but when made on the small scale, it was altogether too 
expensive to compete with common sugar. But, since glucose 
has become an article of commerce, the price is greatly reduced. 
Under these conditions we have tried it again, both in the pure 
state and when mixed with cane sugar, but we must confess that, 
thus far, we have found no economy in its use. We found that 
colonies fed on it were especially deficient in comb-building 
power, and our experiments were on a considerable scale. We 
used hundreds of pounds of glucose carefully tested for purity. 

Bee-keepers should never allow it to enter their apiaries under 
any shape whatever. It will be very difficult to keep it out of 



PEACTICAi APICULTUEE. 39 

the surplus boxes, and then the bee-keeper lays himself open to 
a charge of the worst kind of adulteration. 

Good Cindy. See Candy. 

Gouged Honey. — Honey which has been "gouged" out of 
the top of a " bee gum " after taking off the cover. 

Granulated Honey.— See Honey, Granulated. 

Grape Sugar.— Known also as potato sugar, rag sugar, glucose, 
etc. 

For its chemical relations see Sugar. 

In commerce the term grape sugar is applied to the solid pro- 
duct obtained by slow evaporation from the solution. When in 
the state of a thick syrup it is known as glucose. See Glucose 
and Sugar. 

Gray Bees. — There seems to be a special strain of bees known 
throughout the South by this name. 

Green Honey. — See Honey, Green. 

Grub. — See Larva. 

Guide Comb.— See Comb, Guide. 

Gum. — See Bee- Gum. 

Gum. — This term is sometimes, though very improperly, ap- 
plied to propolis, which is a true resin. In the "Dictionary of 
Chemistry," by Watts, one of the highest authorities in this de- 
partment of science, gum is defined as "a vegetable substance 
which forms a thick glutinous liquid with water, is insoluble in 
alcohol, and is converted by nitric acid into oxalic and mucic 
acids." None of these properties characterize propolis. 

Hackle. — The straw covering which used to be set over the 
conical " skeps " to protect them in winter. Called also a coppet. 

Hatch. — "To produce from eggs by incubation." — Webst>r. 
To issue from the egg. The word hatch, through all its different 
meanings, carries the original idea of production from the egg, 
and any other meaning is only by way of analogy, as "to hatch 
a plot," etc. It should therefore be confined to this meaning; if 
we use it, as is commonly done, to express the issuing of the 
matured bees from the cells, we give it two meanings and intro- 
duce confusion. The term, hatching brood, therefore, should be 
used to signify the very young larvae just issuing from the egg; 
when we wish to signify brood that has matured and is issuing 
from the cell, the term emerging brood (q. v.) should be used. 
Our readers must bear in mind, however, that almost all writers 
fall into this mistake; and by "hatching " brood, mean brood 
that is just emerging from the cell. 

Hatching" Brood J a term which is properly applied only to 
Hatching" Eg^S \ larvas which are just issuing from the egg; 
eggs which are just hatching. Often improperly applied to 
brood that is just emerging from the cells. See Hatch. 



40 DICTIONABY OF 

Heath Bee. — A race of bees which takes its name from the 
district kuown as Luneberg Heath. In form and 'appearance 
they are similar to the German Bee, but are very inferior for 
practical purposes, as they build drone comb, and produce large 
numbers of drones, even with a young queen, and keep con- 
stantly swarming. 
Hexagon. — A figure having six sides all equal and six angles 
also equal to each other, as shown in 
the figure. 

The hexagon has the remarkable 
property that the distance from the 
centre to any of the angles is pre- 
cisely equal to one of the sides. 
Hence, it can be inscribed in a circle 
by laying off the radius of the circle 
(the distance from the centre to the 
circumference) along its circumfer- 
hexagon. ence. 

Hexagonal.— Six sided. Most of the cells of which honey- 
comb is composed are hexagonal. The term hexagonal has been 
improperly applied to what is known as the quincunx arrange- 
ment (q. v.). 

Hill's Device.— A contrivance by means of which the bees are 
enabled to pass over the combs, from one to the other, during 
very cold weather. It is a substitute for winter passages (q. v.), 
but in our opinion is not equal to them. It has the advantage 
of not disfiguring the combs, as the winter passages are said to 
do, though not to our eyes. As well speak of the combs as dis- 
figuring the frames. Hill's device consists of a number of 






HILL'S DEVICE. 

curved strips of wood nailed to a cross-piece as shown in the 
figure. When laid on the top of the frames it keeps the cover 
or quilt up so as to allow the bees to pass under it. The cross 
piece is often made of iron, a great mistake, since metal is too 
good a conductor of heat. Wood would be much better. 

Hive.— ft. A box or basket in which bees are kept. In the old- 
fashioned system of bee-keeping the hive consisted of a box, 
basket, or hollow log, in which the bees lived, and to the sides 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 41 

of which they attached their combs; where movable frames are 
used, the hive includes only the outer shell and its appur- 
tenances. 

The old sense of hive is house. Some Germans still call a 
bee-hive a bee-house. In practical apiculture the word is never used 
as synonymous with "swarm " or "colony," though it is some- 
times so used in poetry. 

Hive. — v. To cause a swarm of bees to enter a hive. 

Hive, Leaf.— A hive invented by Huber, in which the frames 
are hinged together end to end. 

Hiver. — One who hives bees. 

Hiving". — The process of removing a swarm of bees from the 
place where they have clustered to a hive. 

Hiving Basket i A basket or box used for hiving bees. It is 

Hiving* Box \ used to receive the bees from the cluster 
and carry them to the hive. 

Holyland Bee. — This name has been given to the bees found 
in Mount Lebanon, Mount of Olives, Mount Hermon, the Valley 
of Sharon, Bethlehem, the Hills of Judea, Jerusalem, Jordan, 
Amnion, East of Jordan, near the desert, Galilee, Damascus, and 
various other places in that region. Mr. Benton, however, 
claims that there are, in the countries named, two distinct kinds 
of bees possessing very different characteristics. These he calls 
the Syrian Bee and the Palestine Bee. They will be found de- 
scribed under these heads. 

Honey. — The nectar of flowers gathered and stored by the 
bees. This and this alone is true honey. That the bees do 
effect a change in the nectar is undoubtedly true. Pure cane 
sugar syrup when fed to bees and stored in comb is no longer 
cane sugar, though neither can it be called honey. So, too, bees 
often gather the juice of fruit, honey-dew, molasses from grocer's 
hogsheads, and other stuff, and store it in their cells, but none 
of this is honey, even though it has passed through the honey- 
sac of the bee.* > 

As might be expected, honey varies greatly in its composition — 
different varieties being secreted by different plants. The com- 
position also varies with the age of the honey, as a portion of 
the cane-sugar is gradually converted into inverted sugar by the 
action of a ferment contained in the honey. "Whether this fer- 
ment is of animal or vegetable origin is not yet fully settled. 

* If the reader wishes to see how far astray our so-called standard dictionaries are 
in their definitions, let him turn to the words "Honey "and "Propolis." He will 
he reminded of the famous definition of " crah " propounded t • Cuvier by the members 
of the French Academy, when they were getting up their celebrated dictionary. 
They thought that they had achieved something wonderful when they had defined 
"crab "thus: "A red fish that walks backwards." Cuvier complimented them 
highly upon their ingenuity, and said the definition would be perfect if it were not 
for three slight defects : In the first place, a crab is not a fish; secondly, it is not 
red ; and thirdly, it does not walk backwards. 



42 DtCTlONABY OF 

Some hold that the ferment is similar to that found in the juice 
of most fruits; others think that it originates in the alimentary- 
canal of the bee itself. Those who claim a vegetable origin for 
it, suggest that the bees try to prevent fermentation by the ad- 
dition of an acid (formic acid?) and by sealing up the cells. 

Honey contains four different kinds of sugar: 1, cane-sugar; 
2, fruit sugar or glucose; 3, inverted sugar (so-called because it 
turns the plane of polarization to the left or inverts the action of 
the fruit sugar; 4, a sugar of which but little is known, but which 
is evidently distinct. Under the action of the peculiar ferment 
previously mentioned, and which is generally present, the cane 
sugar gradually changes to sugar of the second and third kinds, 
and as these are less soluble than cane sugar, the clear, limpid 
fluid gradually becomes opaque and granular— in other words, 
the honey is said to granulate. 

From this it will be seen that there may be some pure honey 
which will not granulate, and also, that it would not be so very 
difficult to produce an imitation or fraudulent honey which 
would granulate. Therefore, the greatest safeguard which the 
consumer has against adulteration lies in the reputation of the 
producer. 

The specific gravity of honey varies as widely as its chemical 
composition. We have seen the bees gather a liquid which was 
little more than sweetened water, and we have seen the contents 
of the cells so dense that they solidified before the cells were 
sealed. The differences in the following data are, no doubt, due 
to this cause. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF HONEY. 

Authority. Spec. Gravity. Weight of a Gallon. 

ParisCodex 1-261 10-515 lbs. 

Duncan 1-333 11115 " 

Various works on Natural Phil- 
osophy 1-450 12-09 " 

Our own determination of clover 
honey extracted after being 
sealed 1-370 11-507 " 

The gallon is the standard U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches, 
holding 8-339 lbs. of pure water. 

A cubic inch of water weighs -0361 lbs; this multiplied by the 
specific gravity of any sample of honey, will give the weight of 
a cubic inch of that honey. Thus -0361 multiplied by 1*370 
gives -04945 lbs. as the weight of a cubic inch of clover honey. 
This is at the rate of rather less than 21 cubic inches to the 
pound. 

A syrup of the same specific gravity as average honey (1-350) 
may be prepared by dissolving 7 lbs. of cane sugar in 3 lbs. of 
water. See Sugar. 

Honey is adulterated ordinarily by mixing it with glucose or 
syrup of cheap cane sugar, and adding some flavoring extract. 



PEACTICAIi APICULTUBE. 43 

Since glucose has become so abundant and so cheap, has 
driven all other adulterants out of the held, and as it is some- 
what difficult to detect except by experienced chemists or honey 
producers, it is very largely used. Hassal names starch, chalk, 
plaster of Paris, and pipe clay, as chief adulterants, added for 
tbe purpose of giving a lighter color to very dark honey. These 
are easily detected by simply dissolving the honey in hot water 
and collecting the sediment. Pure honey contains scarcely any 
sediment. The starch, if unboiled, will fall down with the other 
impurities. If rendered soluble by boiling, it can still be de- 
tected by the blue color produced on the addition of iodine. 

Blyth, in his ''Dictionary of Hygiene," names, in addition to 
starch, treacle or molasses, potato sugar (grape sugar and glu- 
cose) and syrup. 

To consumers of honey, we would say that the only sure way 
to get a reliable article of honey is to procure it in original 
packages properly sealed, and bearing the label of some known 
producer. If such packages are tampered with, the producer 
undoubtedly has a remedy at common law, and can claim heavy 
damages from the seller. 

The most common form of adulteration, or rather of substitu- 
tion, is to place a small piece of comb honey in a glass jar and 
fill up the jar with glucose. The presence of an ounce of comb 
honey generally serves as a credential for a pound of glucose. 

Honey, Artificial. — When a substance which is exactly like a 
natural product, in its chemical and physical properties, is pro- 
duced by art, we may well give it the name of the natural 
product with the prefix " artificial." But under no other circum- 
stances can this be justified. Therefore, we have no such thing 
as artificial honey. We have adulterated honey, imitation honey, 
fraudulent honey, but no artificial honey; for the simple reason, 
that as yet, we have not been able to produce the article in our 
laboratories. We can take cane sugar syrup, and by adding a 
little honey we have something which may be sold for honey, but 
only by fraud. And so with glucose. If this be added to honey 
we get a product with all the evil qualities of the adulterant, and 
with the delicate flavor and stimulating acid of the honey attenu- 
ated to the last degree. Such mixtures certainly are not artifi- 
cial honey, even though they be sold for such. We might just as 
well call a mixture of milk and water, artificial milk. 

To illustrate still further, let us take the case of the diamond: 
If a manufacturer could crystallize carbon so as to form a gem 
liko the diamond, he would produce something which might be 
called an artificial diamond, for it would be really and truly a 
diamond made by art. But a piece of heavy glass or, as it is 
called, paste, cannot be called an artificial diamond, even though 
it be sold and used as such. It is merely an imitation diamond, 
which is a very different thing. 

Honey-board. — A board with suitable openings placed over 
the frames for the purpose of supporting the honey boxes. 



44 DICTIONARY OF 

Honey-bag 1 . — An enlargement of the alimentary canal of the 
bee in which it carries its load of honey. 

Houey-box. — A box in which bees store honey apart from 
the hive. 

Honey-comb. — This term is applied generally to all the comb 
in the hive, as every part may at some time or other be used by 
the bees for storing honey. Some writers, however, use this 
term to denote comb specially set apart for honey. The cells in 
such comb are very deep and frequently turned up at the ends. 
See Comb, under which word the reader will find the chief 
points of practical interest to bee-keepers. 

In regard to the etymology of the latter part of the word 
honeycomb lexicographers differ greatly in opinion; Webster and 
Worcester, s. v. comb, give the Anglo-Saxon combe, a valley, as the 
word from which it is derived; Skeat and others derive it from 
comb — the same word as that used to denote a common- toilet 
article. Skeat say: "The likeness to a comb is fanciful, but 
there is no doubt about the word." At first sight, merely calling 
to mind the honeycomb as it comes to table, or as it is seen in 
improved hives, the likeness is rather fanciful, but if we turn up 
an old-fashioned skep, and notice the lower edges of the comb 
projecting below the cluster of bees, the likeness becomes quite 
obvious, especially to the comb once used by women to keep 
their hair in place. The word stands alone amongst languages 
being peculiar to English. The Germans speak of honey-comb as 
honig-scheibe — a "shive" or slice; Swedish, honing skaka ; Danish, 
In mning -kage — honey-cake; Icelandish, hunangsseimr ; Dutch, 
honigzeem — honey-string; French, gateau — cake, and rayon — rays. 

Honey-dew. — The best authorities are agreed that there are 
two kinds of honey-dew; or, at least, that honey-dew is derived 
from two very distinct sources. One kind is purely vegetable 
and is exuded by plants — often to such an extent that it falls on 
the ground in a shower. The other kind is produced by aphides 
or plant lice. Bee-keepers are justly very suspicious of honey- 
dew. It may do, perhaps, for warm-weather food, but it is gen- 
erally agreed that bees cannot winter well on it, although excep- 
tional cases are recorded. 

Honey Extractor.— See Extractor. 

Honey-gate. — Since thick honey does not flow freely through 
the ordinary faucet, bee-keepers have adopted the "molasses- 
gate " as it is called. When used for honey it is properly called 
a honey-gate. The pipe, instead of being closed by means of a 
stop inserted in it, is shut at the end by means of a sliding gate. 

Honey, Granulated. — After what we have said under the 
head Honey, the reader will readily understand how it is that 
honey granulates. Granulation, in this case, is a change re- 
sulting in crystallization, and the exclusion of the atmosphere 
serves not only to defer the change, but to prevent to a certain. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. -15 

extent, the subsequent crystallization. It is a curious fact in re- 
gard to crystallization that when a strong solution is sealed up 
while hot, it will remain liquid indefinitely, but if the air be 
admitted, or if a centre of crystallization be inserted in it, the 
whole at once assumes the crystalline condition. Take a satur- 
ated, boiling solution of alum or glauber salt, contained in a 
glass bottle or flask, and cork it tightly with a good common 
cork. If laid aside till cold, it will remain clear and limpid, but 
the moment the cork is withdrawn, crystals shoot through every 
part of the liquid, and the whole becomes a crystalline mass. 
The same is true in the case of honey. If hermetically sealed 
(in the way fruit and meat is put up in air tight cans) while 
warm it will remain liquid indefinite^, but if exposed to 
the air while the temperature is low, it speedily crystallizes. May 
not this be one reason why the bees so carefully seal their winter 
stores? 

The granulation of honey is a very good test of its purity. 
Imitation and adulterated honeys rarely granulate. Ignorant per- 
sons, however, who are not aware of this fact, are unfortunately 
apt to regard granulated honey with suspicion. 

Honey-house. — A house for collecting and keeping honey. 
It is generally a small building connected with the apiary. 

Honey-knife. — 1. A long thin knife used for separating the" 
combs from the sides of a box-hive. 2. A knife of peculiar 
shape used for cutting off the caps of the honey cells before the 
comb is placed in the extractor. 

Honey, Narbonne.— Honey obtained from the neighborhood of 
the town of Narbonne in France, in the department of the Aude, 
S miles from the Mediterranean. It is an old town and was known 
to the Greeks 500 years b. c. For a long period it was a most mag- 
nificent city, adorned with temples, triumphal arches and amphi- 
theatres, and famous for the purity and salubrity of its air. Now 
all its splendor has shrunk into a collection of antiquities, and 
its only celebrity is its honey, which is considered the best in 
France, and by some the best in the world. Narbonne honey 
owes its delicious flavor solely to the abundance of fine honey- 
bearing plants especially rosemary, which grow in its vicinity. 

Honey-sac. — See Honey-bag. 

Honey Slinger. — An extractor (q. v.) 

Honey, Virgin. — That which drains spontaneously from the 
comb when the cells are uncapped. Some authors claim that 
stocks which have never swarmed can alone give virgin honey, 
but this would be to make a distinction without a difference, as 
the fact of swarming or not swarming makes no difference with 
the honey. 

Honey Wine.— Mead (q. v.) 

House Apiary. — An apiary which is kept in a house specially 
constructed for the purpose, The hives are reached from the 



4S DICTIONARY OF 

inside by the apiarist, and the bees pass out and in through 
suitable holes in the sides. 

House, Honey.— See Honey-House. 

Hungarian Bee. — A race of the honey bee found in Hungary. 
See Puice. 

Hybrid. — The term hybrid should undoubtedly be applied 
only to animals whose parents are of different species. When 
the parents are merely different races or breeds of the same 
species, the product is more properly termed a cross (q. v. ) Con- 
sequently, unless we decide that the Italian and the common bee 
are distinct species, the product should be called a cross, and 
not a hybrid or mule. 

One of the special characteristics of hybrids or mules, at least 
in the higher animals, is that they are sterile or unfertile. 
Whether this law extends to animals lower in the scale of being, 
insects, for example, has never been determined so far as we 
know. Indeed, the bee is the only insect that we can call to 
mind, to the breeding of which it has ever been attempted to 
apply generally received principles. The few other insects that 
are cultivated by man are never, so far as we know, controlled in 
their mating propensities. One of the most interesting and 
scientific results to be derived from the introduction of the Apis 
Dorsata, will be the determination of this point: Will the pro- 
geny of the A. Dorsata and any of the varieties of the A. Mebi- 
fica, be fertile ? 

So far as we can at present see, however, the term hybrid, as 
applied to the progeny of an Italian queen and a black drone, 
is entirely incorrect. The progeny is merely a cross. Still more 
absurd is it to call a pure Italian queen, fecundated by a black 
drone, a hybrid. Such a queen is not even a cross; she is 
merely cross-mated, or, as it is more commonly called, impurely 
mated, and the term cross-mated should always be used in such 
cases. There ought certainly to be a limit to the absurdities to 
which language, even though sanctioned by high authorities, 
may be allowed to carry us. 

Hybrid Queen.— See Queen, Hybrid. 

Imago. — The fully developed insect. The last and perfected 
stage of insect life, when the pupa-case or mask which covered 
it, is dropped, and the inclosed image or being comes forth. 

Inferior Hive.— The lowest of a storified set. 

Introducing a Queen. — When a queenless colony is induced 
to accept a strange queen, the latter is said to be successfully 
introduced. The conditions upon which depends success in the 
introduction of a queen are not fully understood. Sometimes a 
queen may be introduced without any trouble whatever; at other 
times, the bees cannot be made to accept a queen except by ex- 
traordinary methods. It is said that if queens are introduced 



tBACTICAIi AKCtTLTtJEE. 47 

just at dusk, the operation is much more likely to be successful 
than if the operation be performed earlier in the day. 

Italian Bee. — A race of bees which seems to Lave been devel- 
oped in a province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian 
Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut in by high, snow- 
capped mountains on the one hand, and the sea on the other. 
The bees inhabiting it have therefore bred in-and-in, until their 
characteristics have become fixed and a distinct race has been 
developed. Spinola called it the Ligurian Bee, a name now very 
generally given to it in Europe. 

Italianizing'. — Changing colonies from any other kind of bee 
to Italians. This is done by the introduction of an Italian 
queen. 

Jelly, Royal. — The food of the larvae which develop into 
queens. Its composition is not fully understood. By some it is 
supposed to be precisely the same as the food upon which the 
larvae-workers are reared, the quantity in which it is supplied 
alone making the difference. Others believe that its composi- 
tion is entirely different. The subject needs investigation. 

Larva, Plural Larvae. — An insect in the stage between the egg 
and the pupa. The word means masked, because the true char- 
acter of the perfect insect is masked or hidden. In the case of 
butterflies and moths the larva is also called a caterpillar, and 
the terms worm, maggot and grub, 
are all sometimes applied to the 
larva of the bee. The term worm 
is decidedly wrong, since the 
worms are not insects at all. The 
term maggot conveys disgusting as- 
sociations connected with blow-flies 
and putrid flesh ; the word grub is 
perhaps better, but the best way 
of all is to adopt the simple word 
larva into the English language. The accompanying engraving 
shows the larva of the bee in its cell and considerably magni- 
fied. For the various stages of the bee in its progress from the 
egg to the perfect insect, see article Bee. 

Ligurian Bee. — The Italian bee. It was accurately and very 
fully described by Spinola in his " Bisector um, Liguras species 
novce aut variores." He found it in Piedmont in 1805. See Italian 
Bee and Race. 
Ligurianize.— To Italianize. 
Late Swarm. — See Swarm, Late. 
Laying Worker.— See Worker, Fertile. 
Leaf Hive.— See Hive, Leaf. 
Long- Idea Hives.— See New Idea. 




48 DICTIONAET Otf 

Lusatian Experiment.— The raising of queens from egg- 
workers. 

Lycoperdoil.— There are several species of this fungus, the 
one generally used for fumigating bees being the L. giganteum. 
It is called Lycoperdon (wolf's fart), because when stepped on, it 
gives a sharp puff and emits a cloud of dust. See Puff-ball. 

Maggot.— See Larva. 

Maiden Swarm.— The first swarm that issues from a stock. 
By some this term is applied to the first swarm that issues from 
a swarm of the same season. 

Manifold Hives. — Hives with numerous compartments which 
may be used either for one large colony or several of moderate 
size. 

Manipulation.— Handling. The words Handle, Handling, are 
greatly to be preferred to manipulate, manipulation. 

Marriage-flight.— Wedding flight. 

Mat.— A flexible covering for the frames. It may be made of 
a great variety of materials— cloth, oil-cloth, wooden strips, etc. 

Maturing Brood.— Brood which is nearly mature; generally 
applied to emerging brood (q. v. ) 

Mel Extractor. — A honey extractor. Obsolete. 

Melipult. — A honey extractor. Obsolete. 

Metal Corners.— See Corners, Metal. 

Micropyle. — The opening in the egg by means of which the 
spermatozoon reaches the inside. It corresponds to the opening 
or foramen of the seed in botany. 

Miller. — A moth; so-called on account of the dusty stains 
which it leaves w 7 hen it rubs against anything, just as does a 
man who works in a flour mill. 

Misuiated. —Cross-mated. 

Moth. — This is the popular name of a division of lepidopter- 
ous insects, readily distinguished from the butterflies and the 
sphinges by the form of their antennae. 

The moth which is of special interest to bee-keepers is that 
known as Galleria cereana — the generic name, Galleria, being de- 
rived from the Latin gallus, a fowl, because the wings when shut 
together turn up at the ends like the tail of a fowl. The spe- 
cific name, cereana, has been given because it feeds on wax. 

The female moth is much larger and darker than the male, and 
is shown in Fig. 1 — copied from the excellent illustrations given 
by Langstroth. 

The male is shown at Fig. 2. The eggs are very small and 
round, and are shown full size at the left of Fig. 3; those at 
the right being greatly enlarged. The female lays her eggs on 
the comb if she can, but quite as often in some crack in the hive 
where they hatch, and afterwards creep into the inside. Dr. 



PKACTICAL APICULTUKE. 49 





Y\g. 1. FEMALE. Fig. 2. MALE. Fig. 3. MOTH EGGS. 

Thacher, in his Treatise (1828), suggests that the bees themselves 

may carry the eggs into the hive on their legs. After a short 

time the larvae grow to the size of 

-r-Tisr«r m^ '' about an inch and present the ap- 

^gS!|X ■! pearance shown in Fig. 4. 

^3=jte ^^ jC They now spin a cocood, whence 

^mmm^mSZlij. they emerge as moths, again to 

Fig. 4. larvve of bee moth s . e . fc in m o tion t ne round of insect 

FULLY GROWN. ^ te - 

Thacher, Harris and others, give 
April or May as the earliest period at which the moth makes its 
appearance. On the 9th of February, 1884, I found two moths 
in full vigor in a hive in which aqueenless colony, upon which I 
had been experimenting, had died. The hive had been standing 
out doors all winter, exposed to a temperature of 10° Fah. after 
the bees died. 

Cleanliness, watchfulness, and prompt destruction of every 
moth, cocoon or larvae, will be found great aids in keeping these 
depredators in check. But the most efficient safeguards are 
strong stocks and Italian bees. 

Moth.— See Wax- Moth. 

Mother Bee. — See Queen. 

Moth Larvae. — The larva of the bee-moth. 

Moth-miller. — An absurd name for a moth. Amongst bee- 
keepers it is generally employed to denote the moth whose larvae 
or young destroy the combs of the honey bee. See Moth. 

Moth-trap. — A trap for catching moths. Also frequently ap- 
plied to a trap for catching their larvae. Most traps are useless; 
if, however, a loose piece of wood be laid on the bottom or against 
the side of the hive, the larvae of the moth will creep under 
it, and may be caught and destroyed. But if such a trap be not 
attended to, it is worse than useless. 

Moth- worm. — An improper name for the larva of the bee- 
moth. 

Movable Frame.— See Irame. 

Moving' Bees. — This term is applied to the transportation of 
bees from one place to another — sometimes for a few yards, at 
other times for miles. 

Mully Puff.— The puff-ball (q. v.) 

Mule. — The workers have been so-called by some writers, The 



50 DICTIONARY OF 

term mule is, however, properly applicable only to the progeny 
of two distinct species, and is synonymous with hybrid (q. v.) 

Nadir. — The hive which is set under another — Keys. 

Nadir-hiving'. — Placing a hive below another for the purpose 
of giving more room. The opposite of super-hiving (q. v.) 

Narboinie Honey.— See Honey, Narbonne. 

Nectar. — The sweet secretion found in the nectaries of plants. 
Named after the famous drink of the gods. 

Nectary. — The honey-gland of a flower. 

Neidering". — Same as Nadir-hiving (q. v.) 

Neuter. — Workers are frequently but improperly so called. 
The term is a relic of the days of ignorance in regard to the 
physiology of the bee. 

New Idea Hives. — This term has been applied at different 
times to various systems and devices, but in general, the "new" 
idea has been an old one after all. The system which came into 
prominence a few years ago as the "New Idea" consisted in 
using an unusually large number of frames, all in one story. 
This, we believe, was the main point, though there were other 
features which were claimed to be of great importance. From 
the great length of these hives they came to be called also the 
"Long Idea Hives." It is needless to say that there was little 
about this that was new. Langstroth tried it more than a third 
of a century ago, and we ourselves, prior to the breaking out of 
the late civil war, had put it in practice. Our experience was, 
that it was a most excellent system for raising bees, but not a 
very good one for raising honey. 

Non-swarmer. 1. A hive so contrived as to prevent the bees 
from swarming. 2. A colony from which no swarm has come 
forth. 

Non-swarming" Hive. — A hive so contrived as to prevent 
swarming. It has not yet been invented, however. 

Normal. — This word literally means — by the carpenter's square 
being derived from the Latin word norma, a carpenter's square. 
It signifies, " according to established rule or principle "; regular; 
usual. The word abnormal (q. v.) is the opposite, and signifies 
out of the ordinary course; not according to established prin- 
ciples; exceptional. 

Nucleus. Plural Nuclei. — The plural nucleuses, even though 
sanctioned^ by Webster, is barbarous. Literally, the kernel of a 
nut. A centre around which others of the same kind may 
gather. In bee-keeping it signifies a very small colony of bees 
which, by care may be increased to a full sized colony. Such 
small colonies usually consist of one or two frames of comb with 
a queen or queen-cell, and a few hundred bees. It is astonishing 
how small a colony will, under favorable circumstances, increase 
to a full sized one, We have had a. colony, so small that it coy* 



practical apiculture. 51 

ered but a small portion of an [_ frame, increase so that it win- 
tered and became a powerful colony. But the most astonishing 
case on record is that of Mr. Doohttle, who once had a colony- 
become so reduced, that by actual count there were only 81 bees 
and the queen, and so they held on till warm weather, when 
they built up without help, and actually gave a surplus of 5 lbs. 
on buckwheat, in sections, and were in splendid condition for 
winter. Such nuclei, however, should not be made to gather 
stores or build comb. A weak colony cannot build comb in cool 
weather, even if fed, w'hile a strong colony will build comb with 
the thermometer below 20° Fah. if they have food. We had 5 
lbs. of bees in a box (taken from a box-hive which was to have 
been brimstoned), and while preparing to get them ready for 
winter they were fed sugar syrup. As they had a little 
comb in the box, we gave them what we thought was enough 
syrup to fill it; but instead of storing it, they used it to build 
two small sheets of beautiful white comb ! The thermometer 
stood at 18° Fah. 

Neither should such small colonies be compelled to go abroad 
much for stores, except in very warm weather. If fed a little 
every two or three days they will stay at home and cover their 
brood, but if compelled to forage, the brood becomes chilled, if 
the weather is at all cool, the bees get disgusted and desert their 
hive in a body. 

Nurse Bees ) It is generally believed that the duty of 
Nursing' Bees \ nursing the brood devolves upon the young 
bees — those of two weeks old or less. Hence they are called 
nurses or nursing bees. Old bees, however, will care for brood, as 
we have shown, by moving a colony in the evening to a consider- 
able distance from the old stand, and placing its own queen with 
perfectly empty comb on the old stand. The first time we tried 
this the bees deserted; the second time they stayed, as we gave 
them comb into which we had poured honey and also comb with 
larvae just hatched. They went to work; the queen laid eggs 
which in due time matured, and the colony became quite strong. 

Nursery, Lamp. — This consists of a double-walled hive made 
of tin. The space between the walls holds a liberal supply of 
warm water, which is kept at an equable temperature by means 
of a lamp. When a frame with a sealed queen cell is placed in 
such a hive or nursery and covered with a thick mat, the queens 
emerge quite as well as when the cells are left in the hive from 
which they were taken. Some assert that queens matured in 
this way are weaker than those that are matured under ordinary 
circumstances, while others, and those amongst our prominent 
queen-raisers, claim that there is no difference. 



Nymph > 

^ , > An insect in the pupa state. 



62 DICTftMABY Otf 



Observer's Hive 
Observing- Hive 



Observable Hive ] A hive with glass sides, through which 
Observation Hive ' the operations of the bees may be ob- 
Observatorv Hive L served - Such a llive should contain 
but one comb, so that the queen may 
be always in view. When not under 
observation the glass is covered with 
wooden panels which exclude the light. 

As to which of the above five terms is the best, it would be 
difficult to say. The second and last are decidedly the worst; 
number three is the one most commonly used; the first and 
fourth are the most logical. They have all been used by authors 
at different times. 

Open-end Frames. — Frames in which the end bars are so 
narrow that the edges do not meet when the frames are placed 
in the hive. There is, consequently, a passage whereby the bees 
can reach the space between the frames and the sides of the hive 
or outer case. 

Ovary. — The organ in which eggs are formed. In the queen 
bee they are large and fully developed, but in the worker, they 
are abortive. Sometimes, however, they become so far devel- 
oped in the latter as to produce eggs, and in that case the bee is 
called a fertile or laying worker (q. v.) 

Over-stock. — To keep in any locality more bees than can find 
a full supply of honey. Some authors doubt the possibility of 
doing this in any case whatever; but it bas been so thoroughly 
proved, that fifty colonies in most apiaries will gather much 
more honey per colony than can one hundred, that there can no 
longer be any doubt in regard to it. 

Oviduct. — The tube through which the egg passes when it 
leaves the ovary. 

Palestine Bees. — The bees found in the southern portion of 
the Holy Land are said by Mr. Benton to be far inferior to those 
found beyond the chain of mountains which crosses the northern 
portion of the country. The latter he calls Syrian bees. See 
Holylamd Bee. 

Paraffin. — The substance known as paraffin or paraffine in 
this country, is a solid, white material, perfectly inodorous and 
tasteless, somewhat resembling spermaceti. Paraffin is, how- 
ever, a generic name for a series of compounds which range in 
consistency from heavy gases to hard solids, and even the sub- 
stance that we buy and use as paraffin does not possess any 
chemical individuality, but is probably a mixture of several 
compounds. In England, the term paraffin, is as frequently ap- 
plied to the liquid as to a solid form; and consequently, we find 
frequent references to " paraffin lamps" — something very puz- 
zling to those who are not aware of these facts. 

Paraffin possesses an interest to the bee-keeper from the fact 
that it is frequently used as a means of adulterating wax. It has 



PBACTICAL APICULTUEE. 53 

even been suggested as a material for foundation — a purpose for 
which it is totally unlit, as its melting point is only 112° Fah., 
while that of wax is 145°. The consequence is, that it melts by 
the heat of the hive, and the entire mass of comb, honey and 
brood falls down in a disgusting mass of irreparable ruin. For 
a method of detecting paraffin when used to adulterate wax, see 
Wax. 

Paraffin is a most useful substance in its place. It answers 
equally as well as wax for coating the inside of wooden vessels, 
and it is used for making beautiful water-proof paper and cloth, 
which serve to protect articles from dampness or leakage. 

Some of the mineral resins or paraffins have a melting point 
higher than that of the article usually sold, and it has been sug- 
gested that they might be used for foundation, but we would 
strongly advise the bee-keeper to keep everything except pure 
wax and honey out of the products of his apiary. 

Parasite. — A plant or animal which obtains nourishment from 
the body of another plant or animal during the whole or a part 
of its existence. In the case of animal parasites, when they live 
in the interior of the animal on whose juices they feed, they are 
called entozoa (singular, entozoon); when they live on the outside 
(as do lice, etc.), they are called ectozoa (singular, ectozoon); or, 
eplzoi (singular, epizoon). Animals which merely live with 
others, eating the food of the latter, and existing oniy where the 
host is present, are called messmates. The animal which harbors 
the parasite is called the host. 

The bee is not seriously troubled with parasites. We have 03- 
casionally found it infected with a minute species of. filaria; 
bacteria and fungi are often present, and it is supposed that a 
peculiar species of the latter gives rise to the disease known as 
foul brood. Of the ectozoa that infest it there are two or three, 
but they do but little damage to a strong stock. 

Parent Colony ) The colony or stock from which a swarm is- 
i Parent Stock J sues forth. 

Parthenogenesis.— The production of young by a female 
without intercourse with the male. 

Pasturage, Bee.— Plants from which bees procure honey. It 
is natural or artificial according as it is wild or cultivated. 

Pauper Swarm.— A deserting colony (q. v.) 

Pavillion. — The middle hive on the collateral system. 

Piling. — Placing hives one above the other; story fying. 

Piper. — An after-swarm having a virgin queen. 

Piping of Queens. — A sound made by young queens when 
there is also in the hive a mature queen, but one not yet emerged 
from her cell. 

Pissoceros. — Literally, pitch-wax. Modern authors consider 
it equivalent to propolis. Pliny tells us that it is the second 



54 



DICTIONARY OF 



foundation of the honey-comb, the first being called nommosin 
by the experienced, and the third propolis. 

Pollen. — The minute grains which fecundate the ovules con- 
tained within the female organs of the plant. It has also been 
called farina, but this term, in this sense, is obsolete. It is not 
even given in Balfour's Glossary of Botanical Terms. Pollen is 
also called bee-bread, and from a mistaken idea that it was the 
crude material from which combs are made, it has been called 
raw wax. 

Pollen presents a peculiar and characteristic appearance under 
the microscope, and at one time its presence in honey was re- 
garded as an evidence of the purity of that article. But the 
purer the honey, the less pollen will there be found in it. The 
grains of pollen vary with different orders and families of plants, 
but are constant in form for each species, and even for some 
genera. A microscope of very moderate power is sufficient to 

A B 






'I7\'*j ' ' 





" :: ^m 



POLLEN GRAINS. 

show their form and markings which are often very beautiful, as 
will be seen by the accompanying engraving, taken from Car- 
penter's work on the microscope. The figures in the engraving 
give a very good idea of the variation in form of different kinds 
of pollen. That marked A is from the Althaea rosea ; B is from 
Cobcea scandens ; C from Passion flower (Passiflora Ccerulea), and 
D from Ifromcea purpui ea. 

Pollen, Artificial. — We have not yet succeeded in producing 
pollen artificially, and it is not likely that we ever shall. The 
term artificial pollen, is therefore a misnomer. But we have good 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 55 

substitutes for pollen, amongst which are the meals of rye, oats, 
and wheat. The best, however, is pea-meal. This was to have 
been expected from its highly nitrogenous character, and prac- 
tice fully confirms what theory suggests. It is a great mistake, 
however, to call meal or flour, artificial pollen. 

Pollenarious.— Consisting of meal or pollen. 

Pollen Basket. — A concavity found on the leg of the worker 
bee. It is surrounded with stiff hairs which literally form a kind 
of basket in which the bee packs and carries pollen. 

Portico. — A porch or covering for the entrance to the hive. 
It may be made quite ornamental, and if properly designed, 
may be made to protect the entrance from wind and rain. It 
leaves a large opening for the bees to strike in the first place, 
while the passage from the outside of the portico to the narrow 
entrance of the hive is thoroughly sheltered. 

Prime Swarm.— A first swarm; one led off by a fecundated 
queen. 

Princess. — A young or virgin queen. 

Prize-section.— See Section. 

Propolis. — A resinous substance collected from various plants 
by the bees and used by them for fastening movable parts of 
their hives, filling up cracks, covering offensive matter, and sim- 
ilar purposes. Sometimes improperly called a gum, which it is 
not; the term bee-gum is used by some English writers as a name 
for propolis. 

Prune. — To cut out old combs so that new may be built. Called 
by the older writers gelding. 

Propolize. —To cover with propolis. 

Pucks.— Puff-balls. 

Puff-ball.— A large fungus, filled with dust when ripe. When 
thoroughly dried it is used for smoking bees, and is a very 
powerful narcotic. 

A knowledge of this plant and its uses in apiculture came to 
us from Great Britain, where there are two genera of puff-ball — 
the Bov is ta and Lycoperdon — the latter being the one generally 
used for stupefying bees by fumigation. The species generally 
employed is the Lycoperdon giganteum, which sometimes attains a 
size of two feet in diameter, and is, in its earlier stages, of a 
dirty white color, but becomes brown by age. When quickly 
crushed (as when trod on) it explodes with a puff and sends out 
a cloud of dust. Hence the scientific name Lycoperdon (q. v.), 
and also the old English name "wolf's bladder." It had a place 
in the old pharmacies as a sovereign application for staunching 
blood, and was also used as tinder in the days before matches, 
though for both these purposes several species of Boletus were 
more frequently used, and indeed have, even now, a place in 
the pharmacopoeia. When young and pulpy the lycoperdon is, 



56 DICTIONARY OF 

excellent eating, but it deteriorates very rapidly after being 
gathered, and should be discarded if, when cut, any yellow 
marks or stains are visible, for then it is too old. 

For fumigating bees, they are dried by artificial heat. 
Thorley, in his " Melissologia or Female Monarchy," gives the 
following directions for collecting and using it. " When you 
have procured one of these pucks put it into a large paper, 
pressing it down therein to two-thirds or near one-half the balk, 
tying it up very close. Put it into an oven some time after the 
household bread is drawn, letting it continue all night. When 
it will hold fire it is fit for your use in the method following. 
With a pair of scissors cut a piece of the puck as large as a hen's 
egg (better at first to have too much than too little), and fix it 
to the end of a small stick slit for that purpose, and sharpened 
at the other end, which place so that it may hang near the middle 
of an eropty hive. This hive you must set with the mouth 
upwards, near the stock you intend to take, in a pail or bucket. 
This done, set fire to the puck with a candle, and immediately 
place the stock of bees over it, tying a cloth round the hives 
that no smoke may come forth. In a minute's time, or a little more, 
you will with delight hear them drop like peas into the empty hive. 
When the major part of them are down, and you hear very few 
fall, you may beat the top of the hive gently with your hand, to 
get as many out as you can. Then, loosing the cloth, lift it off 
to a table, or broad board, prepared on purpose, and knocking 
the hive against it several times, many more will tumble out, 
perhaps the queen amongst them, as I have often found. Lodg- 
ing near the crown, she often retains her hold, and falls one of 
the last." 

Puffs.— Puff-balls. 
Punk-fist.— The puff-ball. 

Pupa. — A bee in its later stage as sealed brood. During the 
earlier period of its existence as sealed brood, it is simply a 
larva — not having spun its cocoon. After the cocoon 
has been spun it is a pupa, and so remains until it 
emerges as an imago or perfect bee. 

The appearance of the pupa when changing its form 
from that of the larva to that of the fully developed 
bee, is very well shown in the accompanying figure from 
Bevan. 

The appearance of the bee during the several 
changes from egg to imago are beautifully shown in 
Girdwoyn's work — " Anatomie et Physiologie de 
l'Abeille," Plate XII. 
Pure. — This may be a contraction for either pure-bred or 
purely mated. It should therefore never be used alone. 

Queen. — n. The mother of all the bees raised under natural 
conditions in the hive.* 

* It is a common practice to transpose the comb, eggs, and brood of diffeient 




PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 57 

Although all the workers are females and should not be 
spoken of as of the masculine gender, as is too commonly done, 
the queen is the only fully developed female in the hive. 
Some old writers spoke of her as the "King Bee," and this error 
survives even to-day amongst some non-progressive bee-keepers. 

Queen. — v. To supply a queen to a colony. To introduce a 
queen. 

Queen Cage. — A cage or box for holding a queen during cer- 
tain operations. Thus it is used for sending queens by mail; 
for keeping queens temporarily out of the hive; for protecting 
queens during the process of introducing. It generally consists 
of a wooden block with a large opening covered with wire gauze. 

Queen Cell. — A large cell in which a queen is raised. The 
accompanying engravings from Langstroth give an excellent 





Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

QUEEN CELLS. 

view of a queen cell. Fig. 1 shows the cell as seen before the 
queen emerges; Fig. 2 shows the same cell with the side broken 
away by the engraver, so as to show the royal pupa within. 

Queen, Cross-mated. —A queen that has been mated with a 
drone of another race. Generally, but improperly called an 
impurely mated qneen. Sometimes, and still more " improperly 
termed, a hybrid queen. 

Queen, Dollar.— A term used to denote an untested queen, 
bred from a purely bred mother that has mated with one of her 
own race. So-called, because the standard price was supposed 
to be one dollar. Strange to say, however, the price of "dollar" 
queens varies from 75 cents to $2. The term, therefore, looks 
very much like a misnomer. 

Queen, Hybrid.— An improper name for a queen whose 

hives, and consequently, the progeny of a pure Italian queen is often raised in a 
colony of blacks; but this is an artificial, not a natural condition. The presence of 
fertile workers is also an abnormal condition. 



58 DICTIONARY or 

mother had been cross-mated. Thus far, we have no evidence 
that we have any hybrid bees (see Hybrid), but if we use the word 
" hybrid " instead of the more appropriate term, " cross bred," 
then a hybrid queen is one that is produced from the eggs of a 
cross-mated queen. But to complicate and confuse matters still 
more, the term hybrid is applied by many writers, and in almost 
all the trade circulars, to pure-bred queens which are cross- 
mated. Such queens are not even crosses let alone hybrids. 

Queen, Impurely Mated. —A queen that has met a drone of 
another race is said to be " impurely mated." We prefer the 
term "cross-mated." 

Queenless. — Having no queen. 

Queen Raising* ) The process of developing queens from the 

Queen Rearing" f egg or larva. See Raising. 

Queen, Tested. — A queen whose progeny has been examined 
ana fouud to be pure-bred. Consequently, the queen must be 
pure, and not cross-mated. By pure is meant that she is of 
some well-defiued race, such as the Black bee, the Italian bee, 
the Cyprian bee, etc. It may seem strange to talk of a tested, 
black queen, but it is perfectly proper to do so, and might be 
necessary. 

Queen, Virgin. — A queen which has not met a drone; an 
unimpregnated queen; an unfecundated queen. 

Queen, Warranted. — A queen which has not been tested (see 
Q.uem, tested), but which the seller agrees to replace if it should 
prove that her progeny are not pure-bred. 

Queen-yard. — This w r as a device of the late Mr. Quinby and 
was intended to prevent the loss of queens with clipped wings 
when they attempted to lead off a swarm. It consisted of a 
small "yard " lined with tin, and with a smooth tin ledge which 
projected internally so as to prevent the queen from crawling 
out. Its use has been abandoned; one reason being that a num- 
ber of bees would often cluster in one corner of the yard, and 
the queen would escape by crawling through this cluster. 

Quilt. — A device for preventing the escape of heat from the 
brood-cluster. The arrangement most frequently used consists 
of two thicknesses of cloth with some porous material between 
them and the whole " quilted " together. This has the great ad- 
vantage that the whole can be lifted off at once, but, on the other 
hand, we have found that when coated with propolis, wax, etc., 
such quilts become so stiff and creased that it is impossible to 
make them lie flat on the frames; bees, therefore, escape, annoy 
the operator, and in cold weather die, because they cannot find 
their way back to the cluster. "We prefer, therefore, to cover the 
frames with a thin, tough sheet (enamel cloth in summer, duck 
in winter), and lay the quilt on this. In this way, any old cloth 
or carpet makes a most excellent quilt when cut to the proper 
size, 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



m 



Quincunx.— This word is derived from the five marks on a 
five ounce weight, and signifies an arrangement in fives, this 
being the least number that will exhibit the system, the special 
feature of which is that the objects stand in straight rows in 
four different directions, so that if they were trees or other 
plants, a cultivator might be run between them on four different 
lines. If it be desired to get the greatest number of plants on a 
given area, and still keep them the greatest possible distance 
apart from each other in every direction, the quincunx system 
enables us to do it. The objects may be arranged as in the 
accompanying figure, where it will be seen that they form rows, 

58 * « £ » 



e 



% 



* 



the objects in the alternate rows "breaking joint" with those 
in the others, and the rows being placed at such a distance apart 
that the distances between any object and those lying around it 
are all equal. 

The quincunx arrangement has been strongly recommended 
for the hives in an apiary, and it serves admirably. It has been 
sometimes improperly called the hexagonal system, from the fact 
that each hive is surrounded by six others, all at equal distances 
from it and from each other. The system is a very old one, and 
it would be a pity to introduce a new and inaccurate name for it. 
Rabbet. — When one part of the edge of a piece of wood 
is planed lower than the rest, the lower part is called a 
rabbet or rebate. In Fig. 1, B, is the rabbet, and upon this lower 
portion the arms of the frames rest, so that their 
upper surface may not project above the Avails 
of the hive; otherwise, the bees would get out here 
and cause annoyance. 

Strange to say, the term rabbet has been " lately 
applied to a strip of folded tin, to be used in any 
hive where the frames are suspended by the top 
bar." In Fig. 2 the folded tin strip, A, will be seen 
resting on the rabbet as just defined. It will 
be seen that the edge of the tin upon which the 
arm rests is just the reverse of a rabbet, and to 
call it a rabbet is an absurdity. It should be 
called a support, bearer, or some similar name, but 




Fig. 1. 



60 



DICTIONABY OF 




Fia\ 2. 



certainly not a rabbet. Some English writers call it a runner, but 
we prefer the word support in such cases. See Support. 

Race. — The term "race," in the sense of kind, is used to de- 
note a variety which, by long exposure to peculiar influences 
and conditions, has lost the tendency to recur to the original 
type. A race differs from a breed (q. v.), in that it has been pro- 
duced by natural means; and from a variety in that it has en- 
dured longer, and has become more permanent. Our most 
scientific bee-keepers acknowledge quite a number of distinct 
races of bees, amongst which may be named the Black, Brown or 
German Bee; the Carniolan; the Caucasian; the Cyprian; the 
Dalmatian; the Egyptian; the Holyland, Syrian, or Palestine; 
the Hungarian; the Italian or Ligurian, for a short description 
of all which, see under these several heads. In the case of 
some of these — notably the Italians and the Cyprians, the race 
has been hemmed in for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years, 
by a wide extent of sea, or by mountain tops whose snow-clad 
summits were an effectual barrier to the passage alike of the 
queens, drones, and swarms of other races. 

Rack. — n. 1. This word was originally used to signify the grat- 
ing placed above a manger for holding hay; Bailey defines it as 
"a wooden frame to hold fodder for cattle, or to put bottles in." 
In bee-keeping the term honey rackis the name of an open frame- 
work or crate placed upon the brood frames for the purpose 
of holding sections or honey-boxes. 2. The term rack is also 
used in mechanics to signify a straight bar with teeth or projec- 
tions. Hence it has been applied to a bar having notches and 
fastened to the bottom of the hive for the purpose of keeping 
the frames the proper distance apart. Used with very deep 
frames and when moving stocks. 

Rack. — v. To draw off clear liquid from sediment. 

Raise ) Both these erms are properly applied to the producing 

Rear f and bringing up of young animals. Webster defines 

raise thus: "To cause to grow; to procure to be produced, bred, 

or propagated." Bear he defines thus: "To bring up or to raise 

to maturity." Queen-raising and queen-rearing are both proper. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 



61 



Worcester, and other authorities, give substantially the same 
definitions. The best etymological authorities agree that the 
words are originally the same. They may, therefore, be used 
interchangeably. 

Raw Wax. — A name given by some old writers to pollen. It 
is founded on the erroneous idea that bees collect wax. 
Rebate. — See Rabbet. 

Rectangle. — A figure in which all the angles are right angles. 
It must therefore be four-sided. 
The sides, however, need not be 
all equal. The opposite sides must 
be equal. A rectangle is not neces- 
sarily oblong; it maybe a square, 
for every square is a rectangle, 
though every rectangle is not a 
square. 

Re-liive. — We would suggest the 
more general use of this word to signify the transposing of 
frames and bees from one hive to another where the combs are 
not cut out, and put in new frames. We need such a word to 
signify the minor operation of transposing from the more im- 
portant one of transferring, and the expression, re-hiving, seems 
to us to meet the case. See Transfer. 

Render Wax, To.— To melt and clarify it. This is best 
done in the Wax Extractor, but may be done in a common pot or 
kettle. See Wax. 

Rhomb.— A four-sided figure whose sides are all equal and 
the opposite sides parallel to each other, but whose angles are un- 
equal, two of the angles being obtuse and two acute. 



RECTANGLE. 






RHOMBOID. 



Rhomboid. — A four-sided figure whose opposite sides and 
angles are equal, but which is neither equilateral nor equi- 
angular. The difference between a rhomb and a rhomboid 
will be readily seen on examination of the figures. 

Ripe Honey. — Honey that has been evaporated either in the 
hive or otherwise, so as to keep without souring. When fully 
ripe it is capped or sealed (q. v.) 

Rob.— When one colony takes the honey of another it is 
said to rob it. 



C2 DICTIONARY OI* 

Royal Cell. — See Queen Cell. 

Royal Jelly.— See Jelly. 

Sandarach. — An old name for pollen or bee-bread. Improper. 

Scout. — It is a general belief that bees, when about to swarm, 
send out scouts to find a suitable location for the future hive. 
This is doubted by some, but the meaning of the word is as we 
give it. 

Seal. — To close a cell by means of a cap of wax, or of wax and 
pollen; an operation performed by the bees. 

Sealed Brood. — When the larvae reach a certain stage of de- 
velopment, the cells in which they have been raised are sealed 
by the bees. The brood remains in this sealed condition until it 
emerges as a fully developed bee, and during this period is 
called " sealed brood." 

Sealed Honey. — As soon as honey is fully ripe the bees cap 
or seal up the 'cells in which it is contained. It is then called 
sealed honey. 

Section ) a small frame, closed on 

Section Box ) top, bottom and ends, in 
which the bees are made to store honey. 
The one-pound section is 4^x4^ inches. 
The two-pound section (or so-called Prize 
Section) is 5^ x G\. The thickness or width 
varies from 1A inches to 2 inches. 



Separator. — A piece of wood or metal 
placed between the sections for the pur- 
pose of preventing the queen from entering TI0N B0X 

them and laying eggs; and also for the pur- 
pose of preventing the bees from building the comb beyond the 
sides of the section. 

Septum. A division. Generally applied to the vertical divi- 
sion between the two series of cells in the comb — that is the 
bottoms of the cells. 

Sheet.— A cloth covering for the frames in a hive. While a 
quilt is generally made of two thicknesses of cloth with some 
porous material between them, a sheet is properly but one thick- 
ness. The sheet is used chiefly for the purpose of preventing 
the bees from passing above the frames; the more clumsy quilt 
is used for preventing the escape of heat from the brood cluster. 
See Frame Cover, Quilt and Mat. 

Sholtz Candy.— See Candy. 

Side Bar. — A name given by some English writers to the end- 
bars of the frames. The term "side" bar is decidedly incorrect. 

Side Boxes.— Honey boxes placed at the sides of the frames 
of comb, or at the sides of the hive, in distinction from those 
boxes which are placed on the top of the hive. The term is not 




PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 63 

often applied to sections or boxes hung at the sides of the 
frames in the brood cluster, but it is difficult to draw the line. 

. Skep ? This word literally means a basket. In some coun- 

Skip ) tries the bees are hived in baskets lined with 
straw. The term, as used in bee-keeping, applies properly to 
the old-fashioned straw hive and similar contrivances, and not 
to box or similar hives. 

Small Hive. — A term applied by some English writers to the 
cap or super. 

Smoke. — Since the bee-keeper has occasion to use this term 
frequently, it is well to get at its true meaning, so that we may 
use the words smoke (v); smoke (in), fume, fumigate, etc., in their 
proper senses. The definition given by Webster, and followed 
by the Imperial Dictionary, is so thoroughly wrong that it cannot 
be defended either for soientific reasons, or upon the ground of 
good usage. His definition is: " The exhalation, visible vapor 
or substance that escapes or is expelled from a burning body." 
To this he adds: "Applied especially to the volatile matter ex- 
pelled from vegetable matter, or wood, coal, peat, and the like, 
the matter expelled from metallic substances being more gener- 
ally called fume, or fumes." 

"Vapor" he defines: "Any substance in the gaseous or aeri- 
form state, the condition of which is ordinarily that of a liquid 
or solid." 

. Now, the essential peculiarity of smoke is, that it consists not 
of gases or vapors alone, but of gases or vapors, or both, loaded 
with finely divided solid matter. In the case of ordinary smoke 
used by'bee-keepers, it consists of the gaseous products of com- 
bustion (carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, etc. ) and the vapors of 
water, pyroligneous acid, etc., loaded with finely divided carbon 
and the partially condensed vapors of imperfect combustion. 
Smoke, therefore, is simply the gaseous products of combustion 
loaded with finely divided solid matter. The smoke of a soft- 
coal furnace is black; that of a magnesium lamp is white. The 
definition given by Worcester agrees with these obvious facts, 
and is correct. 

On the other hand, the term fumes, does not apply especially to 
mineral matter, as Webster states. We speak (and'properly too) 
of "the fumes of tobacco;" "the fumes of whiskey," and the 
word "fumigation," as applied to the exposure of bees to the va- 
pors arising from the slow combustion of puff-ball, has long been 
an accepted term. The word "fumes" applies to purely vaporous 
exhalations, whether vegetable or mineral, and, although origin- 
ally meaning the same thing as smoke, it has now come to have a 
slightly different meaning, so that we very properly make a dis- 
tinction between the fumes of tobacco and the smoke of tobacco. 

Since sulphur, when burned, gives off only fumes, it is proper 
to speak of fumigating bees with sulphur; in that case, we 
should not speak of smoking them. In the case of puff-ball, 




64 DICTIONARY OF 

the active agent seems to be a volatile narcotic, and in this case 
too, the term "fumigate" is proper, even although the fumes 
may be accompanied with smoke. 

Smoke.— v. To direct a blast of smoke on bees for the pur- 
pose of subduing or controlling them. 

Smoker. — An implement consisting of a small furnace in 
which rotten wood, rags, or similar materials are burned. The 
smoke from this slow combustion is blown on the bees by means 
of a pair of bellows which is generally attached. 

Smyrnian Bee.— A race of bees found in Western Asia. Said 
to be quite distinct and very excellent. 

Spacing" Board.— A board with 
grooves into which the end-bars or 
bottom-bars of the frames slide 
and are held firmly at the right 
distances apart. They are used 
when hives with movable frames 
are transported from place to place. 

Spat. — Unsealed brood. This 
word is properly applied to the 
young of the oyster and similar spacing board. 

shell-fish. It is not a desirable sub- 
stitute for the word brood. 

Sj>ecies. — To give a good definition of species, is a problem 
that has taxed the powers of the ablest scientists. Fortunately, 
for our purpose, all questions of origin, etc., may be safely dis- 
regarded, and our task is, therefore, so much the easier. 

Buffon defines a species as "a constant succession of individ- 
uals, similar to and capable of reproducing each other." Cuvier's 
definition is: "A succession of individuals which reproduces 
and perpetuates itself." In both cases, the power to produce 
fertile offspring is a prominent feature of the definition. The 
main question of course is: How far may a series of individuals 
depart from the main type and still belong to the species? 

The fertility of the progeny has frequently been proposed as a 
test of difference in species; but, even with such an apparently 
simple and crucial test, it is not always easy to decide. Some 
kinds interbreed with much more facility than others, even when 
their apparent differences are much greater. Thus, it has been 
found that wild and tame geese, when bred together, produce a 
veritable mule which is unfertile, while the dog and the jackal, 
which are apparently much less nearly related, breed together 
freely, and the progeny is fertile. 

So far as bees are concerned, it is believed by the best author- 
ities that all the kinds at present under domestication are mere 
varieties of one species. Even difference of habit to the extent 
of using wax for propolis, as is the character of the Egyptian 
bee — Apis fasciata — does not indicate a difference of species, for 
it is on record that the common honey bee has done the same 



PEACTICAL APICULTURE. 65 

tiling : when propolis could not be bad, so that before coming to a 
decision, it would be at least necessary to determine whether or 
not the Egyptian bee has easy access to propolis. 

For a list of species see Apis ; the principal races are named 
under the head Bee, and the extent of the variation which exists 
among them under the heads Breeding, Strain, Variety. 

Spent Queen. — A queen whose productive energies have been 
exhausted. 

Spermatozoon. — Plural Spermatozoa. — An essential peculiarity 
of the spermatic fluid of all animals, consists in the presence of 
elongated bodies which have active motion, even for some time 
after they have quitted the living organism. From this they 
have been regarded by many as animalcules, but this is an error. 
They are, undoubtedly, true products of the formative action of 
the organs in which they are found, and cannot be ranked in the 
same category with Animalcules proper. In all the higher ani- 
mals, impregnation takes place from the union of one or more 
spermatozoa with the ovum of the female, and in most cases 
connection between the male and female is necessary for each 
birth. In the birds, however — notably the turkey — one impreg- 
nation lasts for several eggs, and in some of the insect families — 
notably the ants and bees — one impregnation lasts perhaps, for 
a lifetime. In these cases the males produce a large quantity of 
very concentrated semen which is received by the female in a 
small sac and kept there till wanted. See Spermatheca. 

Spermatozoid. — This term was first used in botany to desig- 
nate the moving filaments contained in the antheridia of crypt- 
ogams. It has since been used by Flint and other writers to 
designate what are usually called spermatozoa (q. v.); the object 
in using this word probably being to avoid any appearance of 
sanctioning the idea that spermatozoa are animalcules. But, on 
the ground that the word spermatozoid has been appropriated by 
botanists to denote a specific object, we prefer the word sperma- 
tozoon. Etymologically, the objection named above applies 
equally to both words, but it seems to us to be of no importance. 
The plural of spermatozoid is spermatozoids, not spermatozoa, as 
some have it. 

Spermatheca. — A small sac which is attached to the oviduct 
and receives the spermatic fluid of the drone in the act of copu- 
lation. In virgin queens it is empty, but after impregnation it 
is well filled. It is supposed, that when the egg, in passing 
through the oviduct, comes opposite the opening of the duct 
from the spermatheca, one or two spermatozoa are ejected so as 
to impregnate it. The spermatheca is quite small — just clearly 
visible to the naked eye — and yet it has been estimated by 
Leuckart, that it may contain 25,000,000 spermatozoa. 

Spring" Dwindling 1 . — In many colonies the bees die off in 
spring faster than the young are matured. The colony, conse- 
quently, dwindles, and sometimes disappears altogether. TIiq 



66 



DICTTONAKY OF 



cause of this disastrous state of things has been frequently dis- 
cussed, but no satifactory conclusion has been reached. In our 
own practice we have sought to avoid spring dwindling: 1. By 
economizing to the utmost the natural heat of the bees. This 
we do by contracting the brood nest as much as possible, and 
surrounding it with non-conducting material in the shape of 
cushions and division boards. Also lessen ventilation as much 
as possible. 2. By supplying good wholesome food — preferably 
sugar syrup, for the saccharine portion. 3. By taking great care 
that the queen is never exposed to a low temperature. This can 
only be accomplished by keeping the whole colony warm. If the 
whole colony gets chilled, and the heat of the cluster falls, so 
that the queen gets chilled, it takes her a long time to recover, 
though she may eventually do so, and again become useful. 
4. By having plenty of young but well-matured bees in the fall. 
Young bees which have not had several good flights are worse 
than useless. 

The great remedy for all troubles, however, is to have strong 
colonies with plenty of food. 

Square. — A figure which has all its 
M sides equal, and all its angles right 

angles. The figure A, B, D, C, is a square. 
A square is a rectangle, but a rectangle is 
not necessarily a square. See Rectangle. 

Stall. — An old term for a stock (q. v.); 
more properly, merely the stand. Obsolete. 
Stand. — The base or support upon 
■which the hive stands; also, the location 
of a colony. The word is used improperly 
for stock, colony and hive. See Stock. 
Stand, Bee.— This term is sometimes 
used as synonymous with apiary, but should not be used in this 
sense. 

Starter. — A small piece of comb or foundation put into a 
frame or section to "start" the bees 
comb-building in the right direction. 
A section with a "starter" of foun- 
dation is shown in the figure. 

Sterile Queen. — A queen that does 
not lay. Sometimes queens lay eggs 
that will not hatch. In this case the 
queen can scarcely be said to be 
barren or sterile, though the eggs are 
properly called unfertile. 

Sting". — The weapon by means of 
which bees defend themselves. 

Stock. — This term can scarcely be dispensed with, although it 



o 

A SQUARE. 



1 


1 


pirj 


[ 


II 









SECTION WITH STARTER. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 67 

does not find a place in some glossaries, and other writers con- 
sider it synonymous with colony, which it certainly is not. 
A colony is simply the bees of any stock, whether a new swarm 
or the inhabitants of a hive that has been established for years. 
Then we have the hive, which certainly does not include a colony, 
just as a colony does not necessarily include a hive.* A stock, 
however, includes colony, hive, comb, stores, and all that is 
necessary for the normal existence of the bees. (Sections, 
crates, smokers, etc., may be necessary for the bee-keeper, but 
not for the bees, and consequently cannot be included.) 

Stock Hive. — A term sometimes used to denote the hive or 
apartment in which the brood, etc., exists, as distinguished from 
the "Super" or honey-gathering apartment. 

Stopped. — Capped (applied to cells containing honey). 

Stop- wax. —Propolis. 

Storiiy. — To range hives over or under each other. 

Strain.— This word, though characterized by Webster as ob- 
solete and rare, is one of the most useful, expressive, and legiti- 
mate words that we have, and this is shown by the extraordinary 
difficulty of finding a synonyme for it. When we speak of a 
strain of bees we mean a series of carefully selected individuals 
which have not been erected into a breed, but, nevertheless, show 
certain peculiarities which distinguish them from bees bred pro- 
miscuously. The word finds its proper place in the following 
sequence: 

( Variety J 
Genus— Species — \ Race > — Strain. 
(Breed ) 

Amongst stock breeders, the word is in common use, and 
amongst certain very distinct breeds we have strains which are 
noted for certain peculiarities, although these peculiarities do 
not constitute a sufficient difference to make a new breed. Thus, 
we have certain strains of particular breeds of cattle, which 
strains are noted for large quantities of milk, while other strains 
of the same breed are noted for their butter-giving qualities. 
And so, too, with bees; of the same race we may have different 
strains — some noted for gentleness, some for great working 
power, some as being good nurses, some as wintering well, some 
as combining several good features. 

Strained Honey. — This term would properly apply to filtered 
or clarified honey, but it is generally used to denote honey that 
has been obtained from the combs by squeezing. It frequently 
contains the juices of young bees, bee-bread, etc., etc. 

Sugar. — Sugar being the main constituent of honey and the 
chief food of the bee, possesses special interest for the bee- 

* Dealers and bee-keepers speak of sending 'colonies - ' in packing boxes. Irj 
<iu.ch. instances. jb.ey certainly do not include the hi-e>; 



68 DICTIONARY OF 

keeper. Under the Leads Candy, Glucose and Honey, the reader 
will find interesting and useful information in regard to the 
subject. The different kinds of sugar which enter into the com- 
position of honey are named under the head Honey, and possess 
much interest to the scientific inquirer; but, with the exception 
of cane sugar, which is used so largely for feeding bees, and 
glucose (natural and artificial), it would at present be difficult to 
turn this knowledge to practical account. The reader who is 
curious on the subject will find a very complete resume of our 
knowledge in regard to it in the "Dictionary of Chemistry," by 
Watts. A few of the chief facts in regard to cane sugar may be 
of value here. 

The term, "sugar," is generally applied to the product ob- 
tained from the cane and the beet, and from the fact that it was 
first largely obtained from the cane, it is now generally kuown 
as cane sugar. It is found not only in the sugar cane and the 
beet root, but in the maple and in numerous other plants. The 
juices of many grasses* contain it, and cases have been recorded 
where bees have obtained much food from the stubble of wheat, 
corn, and other plants of that kind. The nectar of the flowers 
of the cactus contains cane sugar only. Cane sugar is also 
found in varying proportions in the nectar of most other plants. 

Cane sugar dissolves in one-third of its weight of cold water, 
and in all proportions of boiling water. It has a sweetening 
power of 100; grape sugar having 60. It melts at 320° Fah., and 
on cooling forms the transparent substance known as barley 
sugar. When heated to 400° to 410° it loses water and becomes 
brown; it is then no longer capable of crystallization, and is 
called caramel. Indeed, cane sugar is so susceptible of change 
by heat, that if a colorless solution of it be exposed for some 
time to the temperature of boiling water, it becomes brown and 
partially uncrystallizable. Acids also effect this change. Tar- 
taric acid added to a solution of sugar and boiled, prevents the 
formation of crystals, and no crystals can be obtained even after 
the acid has been thoroughly neutralized by chalk or carbonate 
of lime. 

Cane sugar is (with bee-keepers) a favorite winter food for 
bees. Experience has shown that it answers admirably, and its 
composition shows that it is entirely combustible, leaving no 
ashes or residue, whether it be burned in the organism of the 
bee or the furnace of the chemist. It has a greater heat-giving 
power, weight for weight, than other forms of sugar. But since 
pure sugar contains no muscle-forming material, it may be 
doubted if it alone will sustain a colony of bees which may be 
compelled to exert themselves either for the purpose of gather- 
ing food, or for that peculiar activity which they show when ex- 
posed to great cold. 

As bee-keepers may have occasion to caloulate the weights and 

* The cane is regarded by botanists as a gigantic gtr-^ 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 69 

bulks of given quantities of syrup, we give a few figures. The 
quantity of sugar dissolved is 100 parts; the amount of water by 
weight is given in the first column, and the specific gravity of 
the resulting syrup in the second column. 

Parts of Water. Spec. Gravity. 

50 1-345 

60 1-322 

70 1-297 

80 1-281 

90 1-266 

100 1-257 

120 1-222 

140 1-200 

160 1-187 

180 1-176 

200 1-170 

As water has a specific gravity of 1,000, and a gallon of water 
(231 cubic inches) weighs 8 339 lbs., it is easy to calculate the 
weight of a gallon or a quart of syrup containing any known 
amount of sugar. Or from the weight of a gallon or quart we 
can tell how much sugar it contains. 

Sulphur. — n. A well known substance of a yellow color. It is 
oue of the chemical elements — that is to say, it cannot be manu- 
factured by combining any other known substances. It occurs 
as a mineral in some volcanic regions, especially Sicily, and is 
also obtained from iron pyrites, which is a compound of iron 
and sulphur. It is found in commerce in three forms: 1. Crude 
sulphur or brimstone, which is simply the sulphur solidified in 
masses like stones. 2. Roll sulphur, which is the preceding, puri- 
fied and cast in moulds so as to form rolls or sticks. 3. A fine 
powder prepared by distilling or subliming the common sulphur 
and condensing the vapor. It melts at 232 Fahr., and "between 
this point and 282° it is quite liquid. When still further heated 
it becomes thick and viscid, but again becomes liquid just be- 
fore it vaporizes. Therefore, in melting sulphur for making 
matches, ifc should not be made too hot. Sulphur is easily con- 
verted into vapor without being burned, and in that case it is 
not so deadly as when combined with oxygen so as to form sul- 
phurous acid (sulphurous anhydride), or in other words, when it 
is properly burned. In the latter case it produces a heavy gas 
of a very penetrating and suffocating nature which effectually 
destroys all insect life, whether in the form of mature bees, 
moths, or the larvse of either. This gas, however, quickly dif- 
fuses in the air, and does not leave any taint on the comb or 
honey exposed to it. But if we expose honey to the unbumed 
vapor of sulphur, the latter condenses on the comb or honey, 
and leaves a very disagreeable taste and odor. And as sulphur 
is not volatile at ordinary temperatures, this taste and odor are 
tery persistent. 



70 



DICTIONARY OF 



Sulphur. — v. To kill by exposure to the fumes of burning 
sulphur. A process now used by intelligent persons only for 
destroying the moth in its various stages. 

Super. — A hive set over another so that the bees may work 
in it. 

Super, Bar. — A bar super is simply a case or crate in which 
the honey-comb is hung from bars (q. v.) instead of being built 
in sections or boxes. 

Super, Divisional. — English writers apply the term "divis- 
ional super," to a set of long sections reaching across the entire 
width or length of the hive, and held together somewhat after 
the manner of closed end frames. 

Super-hive. — v. To set one hive above another. 
Super-hiving 1 . — The opposite of Nadir-hiving (q. v.) 
Superior Hive. — The uppermost of a storified set. 
Super, Sectional. — A super or case placed over the frames or 
honey board, and containing sections (q. v.) 

Support, Metal. — A strip of metal fastened 
to the edge of a rabbet for the purpose of sup- 
porting the frames. Improperly called a metal 
rabbet. A common form of metal support, 
bearing or runner (as some English writers call 
it), is shown in the annexed engraving at B. See 
Rabbet, where another form is shown. 

Swarm. — A new colony produced by an old 
stock. Prime swarms consist of the old queen 
and an indefinite number of workers of all ages, 
together with some drones. After swarms (called 
also second, third, etc., swarms) consist of one 
or more young queens followed by workers, and 
perhaps drones. See After-swarm. 

The term, colony, is very apt to be confounded 
with swarm. The difference is this: A swarm is 
a young colony just detached from the parent stock. The idea 
which attaches to the word swarm is, that either under the influ- 
ence of the so-called swarming fever, or by the direct agency of 
man in dividing them, the old colony has split up into two or 
more parts, one of which maintains the identity of the old stock, 
while the other seeks a new home. See Stock. 

Swarm, Artificial.— A new colony formed from one or more 
old* colonies by the direct agency of man. 

Swarming- Basket ) a box or basket fastened when neces- 
Swarming Box f sary to the end of a long pole, and used 
for taking swarms from a tree or bush and hiving them. The 
box or basket is held directly beneath the swarm, and the bees 
brushed into it with a feather, or where the limb is inaccessible 
and better facilities are not at hand, the limb may be shaken sq 




METAL SUPPORT 
ATTACHED TO 
RABBET. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 7l 

that the bees will fall into the box. This may be done in some 
cases by placing the upper end of a stick against the branch to 
which the bees cling, and striking the lower end sharply with a 
mallet. The bees fall off, but very few take wing, and there is no 
danger of killing the queen. 

Swarming Impulse. — A desire or tendency on the part of 
bees to swarm. The conditions under which it occurs are not 
fully understood, but that it is a definite desire or impulse, 
nearly as much so as the fever of fowls when wishing to set, there 
can be no doubt, and the most effectual way of stopping it prob- 
ably, is to gratify it in appearance at least. The honey-extractor 
is said to keep it down very effectually, but cases have been 
known in which even this failed. Query: Has it any con- 
nection with a greatly developed wax-secreting condition? 
If so, the most effectual method of subduing it would be to set 
the bees at work building new comb for a few days, as well as 
giving them room for new stores of honey. 

Swarm, Late. — A swarm which comes off after the usual 
swarming season is past. 

Swarm, Natural. — A new colony formed by the instinct of 
the bees without the direct interference of man. Such opera- 
tions as feeding to promote brood-rearing and to excite the 
swarming impulse, do not constitute direct interference. 

Syrian Bee. — A race of bees found in Syria. Frequently con- 
founded with the bees found in the country to the south of 
Syria. See Holyland Bee. 

Take Up, To. — To destroy bees for the purpose of getting the 
comb and honey. 

Tested Queen.— See Queen, Tested. 

Tier Up, To. — To place one hive on the top of another so as 
to give the bees more room. The operation may be repeated 
several times. 

Top Box. — A box placed on the top of a hive for surplus 
honey. 

Transfer. — To change the comb and bees of a stock from one 
hive to another. The term transferring has, however, come to 
have a special significance, and is commonly used to denote 
the operation of changing bees and comb from box-hives to 
movable comb hives, or, indeed, to change the comb from one 
frame to another. And if any one could be found who changed 
his comb back to the box hive, this operation also would be 
called transferring. A quantity of comb transferred to a frame 
is shown in the illustration on the next page. The comb is held 
in place in this frame by means of wires, clasps and slats. 

There is another operation, however, in daily use in extensive 
apiaries, and that is the transposing of frames and bees from one 
hive to another. This operation, strictly speaking, should not 



72 



DICTIONARY OF 



be called " transferring " but transposing ox re-hiving. Bee Re- 
hive. 




COMB TRANSFERRED TO FRAME. 



Transferring- Board.— A board with grooves used in trans- 
ferring. The frame and comb lie flat on tbe board, and the wires 
or slats, seen in the previous figure, lie in the grooves so as not 




TRANSFERRING BOARD. 

to be pressed into the comb. In the figure the grooves are sim- 
ply spaces between narrow boards or slats which are nailed to 
two cross pieces. 

Transpose. — When frames and bees are moved bodily from 
the shell or outer case of one hive to that of another, the term 
"transpose " might be used. In this way we would avoid con- 
fusing the simple operation of changing boxes with the more 
elaborate and difficult one generally known as "transferring." 

To transpose a colony is one thing, however, and to transpose 
frames of comb is another. Tbe latter may be performed in the 
same hive by simply re-arranging the frames. As a single word, 
denoting the .changing of a colony from one hive to another, 
without the operation of transferring, we prefer the term re-hive. 

Treble ^ 

Triple I v - r ^° a< ^ a ^ ir ^ hi ve or k° x t° *wo that were 

Triplicate ) P reviousl y occupied by one colony. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 73 

Triplet. — A stock that Las three hives or stories. 

Twin-stock. — A word which has been borrowed from the 
German. It signifies a hive containing two colonies. 

Uncapping. — To remove the caps from the cells of sealed or 
capped honey. This is always done before the combs are placed 
in the extractor. 

Unfertile. — This term may be applied to either queens or eggs. 
It means incapable of producing young. See Sterile. 

Unicomb Hire. — A hive having only one comb, and generally 
with glass sides. An observable hive. 

Unite. — To make one colony out of two or more. 

Uniting Spirit. — A mixture of spirit of peppermint, water 
and honey used for sprinkling bees to give them the same odor, 
so that they may be united more easily. Dzierzon. 

Unqueen. — To remove a queen and leave the colony queenless. 
This term saves much circumlocution. 

Unripe Honey. — Honey from which the water has not been 
sufficiently evaporated. 

Untested ($ueen.— A queen whose progeny has not been ex- 
amined or tested. 

Varietv. — Any form or condition of structure, under a species, 
whioh differs in its characteristics from those typical to the 
species, as in color, shape, size, and the like, and which is 
capable either of perpetuating itself for a period, or of being 
perpetuated by artificial means; also, any of the various forms 
under a species, meeting the conditions mentioned. Amongst 
naturalists, a form characterized by an abnormity of structure, 
or any difference from the type, that is not capable ot being per- 
petuated through two or more generations, is not called a variety. 
Varieties differ from species in that any two, however unlike, 
will mutually propagate indefinitely, unless they are in their 
nature unfertile, as some varieties of rose and other cultivated 
plants; in being the result of climate, food, or other extrinsic 
conditions or influences, but generally by a sudden, rather than 
a gradual, development; and in tending in most cases to lose 
their distinctive peculiarities when the individuals are left to a 
state of nature, and especially if restored to the conditions that 
are natural to typical individuals of the species. — Webster. 

Varieties differ from races and breeds in the suddenness of 
their appearance. The development of a race or breed is grad- 
ual — often the result of agencies which have acted for hundreds 
of years. 

A variety also differs from a race in that the latter tends more and 
more to establish its distinctive 'features, and loses its tendency 
to "cry back" (q. v.), consequently, a variety is generally con- 
fined within narrower limits than a race. And it differs from a 



n 



DICTIONARY OF 



" breed" not only in the points just mentioned, but also in the 
fact that the latter is always to a certain extent artificial. In 
short, a variety partakes largely of the nature of a " sport," as it 
is called by horticulturists. 

The term variety, however, is used almost wholly by scientific 
men — naturalists in every department. Practical stock-breeders, 
whether of Durham cattle or of bees, use the words race and 
breed. — See Species, Strain. 

Veil ? Bee. — A veil used by bee-keepers to protect them from 
the stings of the insects. There are different methods of ar- 




BEE VEIL. 



ranging the veil, one of the best being that shown in the en- 
graving, copied from Quinby's work on Bee Keeping. 

Ventilate. — To change the air in any place. In the hive ven- 
tilation is effected in two ways: Naturally, when the bees by the 
action of their wings produce currents of air which penetrate to 
every part of the hive; Artificially, when the bee-keeper estab- 
lishes a current of air by means of suitably arranged openings. 
Artificial ventilation in winter has been extolled on the one hand 
as the greatest aid in safely wintering colonies, while on the 
other it has been condemned as contrary to the habits of the 
bee, and the probable cause of more losses than any other 
device. 

Yirgin Comb. — Comb which has been used only once for 
honey and never for brood. 

Yirgin Honey. — Honey taken from virgin comb (q. v.) By 
some this term is applied only to the honey gathered and stored 
by a swarm of the same season that the honey is taken. Some 
authors define virgin honey as that which drains from the combs 



PKACTICAIi APICULTUKE. 75 

without pressure or beat, and this seems to be the definition 
accepted by most of our standard authorities. 

Virgin Queen. — See Queen, Virgin. 

Virgin Wax. — Wax from virgin comb (q. v.) Virgin wax is 
frequently prescribed in the older recipes for various industrial 
purposes, but with our modern methods and systems of purify- 
ing wax, any bright yellow wax is as good as what is known as 
virgin wax. 

Warranted Queen. — See Queen, Warranted. 

Wax. — When "wax," simply, is spoken of, beeswax is always 
understood. In this place vegetable wax and mineral wax have 
no interest for us except as adulterants, which are to be avoided. 
Wax is secreted by the bees, is formed into scales in the wax- 
pockets (q. v.), and is thence taken into the mouth, where it is 
kneaded with saliva until sufficiently plastic to be used in build- 
ing the cells. There are two kinds of wax in market — common 
beeswax and Andaquies wax, which is produced by a small bee 
found on the plains of Orinoco, above the Magdalena River. 
Like the Apis dorsata, these bees attach their combs to the limbs 
of trees. This wax has a rather higher melting point than com- 
mon beeswax, and hence if it could be procured in quantity and 
should prove sufficiently plastic, it might prove exceedingly 
useful in the manufacture of foundation. Lewy gives its specific 
gravity as -917, and its melting point as 170° Fahr. 

Common beeswax has a specific gravity of -960 to '965, and a 
melting point of 145° to 150° Fahr. The process of bleaching 
raises the specific gravity to -990, and the melting point to 155° 
Fahr. At 85° wax becomes plastic, so as to be easily moulded or 
kneaded, and at this temperature pieces which are pressed into 
contact unite into one mass. Proctor says, that at this tempera- 
ture " its behavior while worked between the finger and thumb 
is characteristic." A piece the size of a pea being worked in the 
hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb 
and forcibly stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, follow- 
ing the finger, and is marked by it with longitudinal streaks. 

Wax is freed from honey and adhering impurities by being 
melted in water, to which vinegar, alum, or a little nitric acid 
has been added. For the best methods of purifying and bleach- 
ing wax, see article Wax in the forthcoming " Treasury of Prac- 
tical Information." 

The adulterations of wax are various powders — starch, clay, 
etc.; resin; tallow and suet; and lastly, paraffin. Powders may 
be separated by disolving the wax in turpentine, when the pow- 
ders will be left. Resin may be detected by its peculiar terebin- 
thinate (turpentine) taste, and by its solubility in cold alcohol, 
in which wax is insoluble. When resin is present the fracture 
of the wax is shining instead of granular. Greasy matter is 
easily detected by the unctuous feel and disagreeable taste, Wax 



76 



DICTIONARY. OF 




WAX POCKETS. 



with which paraffin has been mixed melts at a temperature too 
low to allow it to be used for foundation. The wax may be 
separated by a strong solution of alkali, which has no effect 
whatever on paraffin. 

Wax Extractor. — A piece of apparatus for separating wax 
from other impurities, such as bee-bread, dead bees, etc. 
Wax Moth.— See Moth. 

Wax Pockets. — Small cavities found on the 
under side of the bee, in which the secreted wax 
is collected and kepttill required for use. In the 
honey bee these pockets are found under the ab- 
domen, and there are eight of them — four on each 
side. The stingless bees of South America collect 
the wax on the back. 

Wedding Excursion) When the queen leaves 
Wedding" Flight \ tne ^ ve for the purpose 

of meeting the drones, she is said to take her 
wedding flight. Also called marriage flight. 
Wide Frames. — Frames which are so wide that sections may 

be placed in them and hung in 

the hive. The term is to be pre- 
ferred to hroad frame, as the latter 

is apt to be mistaken (especially 

when written) for brood frame. 

The figure shows a wide frame 

with sections hung in a hive. 
Wild Bees. — These differ in no 

respect from the bees originally 

kept in hives, except in the fact 

that they have taken up their 

abode in some natural cavity in tree, rock, or even the ground. 

This will be seen at once when we remember that most of the 

colonies found in the woods have absconded from some apiary. 

Even pure Italians have been found in the condition of wild 

bees. 

■ Wind Breaks. — Fences or rows of trees so arranged as to 

break the force of the prevailing winds. 

Wine, Honey. — Mead. 

Wintering". — During nearly five months of the year (from 
November 1st to April 1st) bees in northern latitudes are con- 
fined to their hives, often for months at a time. During this 
period, if neglected, they are exposed to cold, to the use of un- 
suitable food, and even to actual starvation. The beekeeper, by 
proper care, protects them from cold, provides them with a suf- 
ficiency of good food, and in other respects sees that they are 
guarded from those evil influences against which they themselves 
are at this season powerless, This is cal'led wintering. The 




WIDE FRAMES AND SECTIONS. 



PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 77 

I 

wintering of bees, as at present practiced, is not conducted 
so as to secure uniformly successful results, and he who will 
place it on a sound scientific basis will add millions to the 
annual income of the country. 

Winter Passages. — Passages made through the combs so that 
the bees can pass to the different combs without having to go 
under or around them. As the combs, where not covered by bees, 
are very cold — often frozen — in winter, any bee that attempts to 
crawl over them is lost, while if she could go through the combs, 
without leaving the cluster, she might be able to reach a supply 
of food and so sustain life. To enable her to do this, it is the prac- 
tice of some of our best apiarists to cut holes in the combs about 
two or three inches below the top of the frames, and as the bees 
are apt to fill these holes up, many insert a tin thimble in them 
to keep them open. We object to tin, or any metallic substance 
amongst the bees in winter, and greatly prefer a wooden tube 
made by rolling a thick shaving round a roller, and tying 
it with very fine wire. The wood being a poor conductor of 
heat is greatly better than tin. Such thimbles should be in- 
serted in the foundation — thus saving the bees the labor of 
building comb which is to be afterwards cut out. At least four 
frames in every hive should have these thimbles. If they should 
come into extensive use they could be easily and cheaply turned 
out of some firm wood. The internal diameter need not be 
more than half an inch, and they should be quite thin. We 
have tried paper and pasteboard, but the bees gnaw them. We 
greatly prefer two or three of these small holes to one large one. 
They should be at least three or four inches apart. Where tin 
tubes are used they should be heated and dipped in melted wax, 
so that the metal surface may be completely covered. 

Hill's device (q. v.) is intended to answer the same purpose, 
but we do not think it quite as efficient. Perhaps both would be 
best. 

Wired Foundation.— See Foundation. 

Wired Frames. — See Frames. 

Wolf's Bladder.— Puff ball. 

Worker Bees. — These are the undeveloped females that 
gather the honey and pollen, secrete wax, raise the brood, de- 
fend the hive, and perform all the other active duties of bee-life, 
with the exception of laying eggs. 

Worker Eggs. — Properly this term should signify eggs laid 
by workers. More frequently it is used (improperly, we think) 
to signify eggs that will produce workers. See Egg. 

Worker, Fertile ) A worker whose ovaries have been so far 
Worker, Laying f developed that she lays eggs. As tbese 

workers are never impregnated, their progeny are always drones. 

The term "fertile" worker has been objected to, but it is 

strictly proper, 



78 DICTIONARY OF 

Worm. — A common but very improper name for larva (q. v.) 
of bees or moths. Worms never change to flies, bees, or butter- 
flies. They are not insects. 

Worms.— The larvas of the bee-moth are frequently, but im- 
properly, so called. Indeed, when "worms" are spoken of by 
the ordinary beekeeper, the larvae of the bee-moth are almost 
always meant. 



practical apiculture, 79 



APPENDIX. 



Apiology. — A discourse about bees. The literature of bee- 
keeping. 

Apist. — A bee-keeper {inelegant). 

Apistical. — Relating to bees or bee-keeping. 

Artificial Comb. — It is no wonder that the idea that artificial 
comb is a regular article of manufacture should take a deep hold 
of the popular mind, when so many journals and books speak of 
it as an. accomplished fact. In the "Mutual Admiration So- 
ciety's " Cyclopaedia* we are gravely told that Dr. John Long has 
invented a machine "that turns out combs with cells, rivalling, 
if not excelling, the natural product" !!! This will bring a 
smile to the faces of readers of back volumes of the American 
Bee Journal. 

In noticing the substitutes for comb we ought not to omit 
mention of the fact that it was by transferring the larvae to glass 
tubes, made in the form of cells, that Huber was enabled to 
watch the process of cocoon-spinning. See " NouvelJes Observa- 
tions surles Abeilles." Par Francois Huber. Geneve 1814. Vol.1., 
p. 221. 

Frames. — The following comparison of the comb-surface ex- 
posed by completely filled frames of the various sizes in use is 
interesting. I have assumed that the top bar is f of an inch 
thick; the end and bottom bars J inch each. In frames as made 
by some makers these dimensions vary slightly, but by actual 
measurement I find that the sizes I have given are not far out of 
the way. The Standard Frame of the British Bee-Keepers' As- 
sociation is 14 inches long by 8J inches deep, the top bar being 
§ of an inch thick, and the end bars (or side bars, as our cousins 
call them, not very properly) \ of an inch. This gives exactly 
three-quarters of a square foot, and is the smallest frame in use 
for any except nucleus hives. Of course, in order to get the 
entire surface of comb exposed (as in estimating amount of 

* Johnson's — So called because each of the several hundred editors and con- 
tributors had his "biography" published in it. This / of course, left no room for 
any account of such men as Langstroth, Dzierzon, Wagner, and many others 
whose work really deserves recognition. Even Lawes, who has probably donr 
more than any other living man for the Science of Agriculture, and whose name ii 
familiar to every student of the subject, is not so much as mentioned. 



BO DICTIONARY OF PRACTICAL APICULTUBE. 



brood), the quantities given in the table must be doubled, so aS 
to include both sides. 

Area in Area in 

Frame. Square Inches. Square Feet. 

Quinby— open end 191 1-326 

closed end 193 1340 

Langstroth— Simplicity 145-56 1-010 

Standard... 143-43 -995 

Adair 135-47 -940 

American 130-75 -908 

Gallup 114-22 "793 

British Standard 108 -750 

Frame, Broad-shouldered. — A frame with the top bar maae 
wide at each end for the purpose of keeping the frames a proper 
distance apart. 

Frame, Cold. — A frame which runs lengthwise of the hive- 
that is, having the end bars against the entrance. 

Frame, Warm. — A frame which runs across the hive — that is, 
having the bottom bar parallel with the entrance. Why it was 
called a " warm " frame we do not know, except perhaps that it 
was thought that the outer frames, with their sheets of comb, 
would act as a protection from cold draughts of air. See Frame, 
Cold, Supra. 

Fungicide. — A destroyer of fungi. A term applied to certain 
chemicals which have powerful antiseptic qualities, due, it is 
supposed, to the fact that they are very destructive to minufe 
fungi. Prominent among these chemicals are borax, salicylic 
acid, sulphur, sulphurous acid, etc. 

Lug's. — (Scotch and Provincial English for ears). The arms 
of frames are sometimes inelegantly so called. 

Midrib. — A term sometimes improperly used for septum (q.v.) 

Runner. — A thin-edged bearer or support for the arms of the 
frames The term is not a good one. 

Subtend. — This term has been used (not very properly) to 
denote the placing of one hive under another. 

Swarm. — v. This term is used both in reference to the old 
colony and the new swarm. A stock is said to swarm when it 
throws off a new colony, and a new colony is said to swarm out 
when it leaves the parent stock. 



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cut with one of your Combined 
Machines last winter 50 chaff 
hives with 7 in. cap, 100 honey 
racks, 500 broad frames, 2,000 
honey boxes and a great deal 
ofother work. This winter we 
have double the amount of bee 
hives, etc., tn make and we 
expect to do it all with this 
Saw. It will do all you say it 
will. Catalogue and Price List Free. Address W. F. & JOHN 
BARNES, No. •> 1 1 Ruby street, Rockford, 111. 




"THE ECONOMY GARDEN ENGINE. 5 ' 

JUST THE THING FOR BEE-KEEPERS. 




Our " Economy" Garden Engine is true to name. We offer it five to 
seven dollars cheaper than any other garden engine in the market. 
Size, 35 x 14 x 22. Capacity, 40* gallons. Price with three feet of dis- 
charge hose and " Boss" nozzle^ $20.00. 

Gardeners, fruit-growers and nurserymen will appreciate this En- 
gine, which, in seasons of drouth, enables them to keep their growing 
crops from suffering for want of water. It can be moved about easily, 
and for sprinkling lawns and flower gardens, and wetting down dusty 
streets, will be found very valuable. 

US - Bee-keepers can by it control their swarms completely, as from 
the force with which it throws a stream, the bees can be reached at 
distances where the ordinary "squirt guns" are powerless. 

Send for Catalogue. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

Cambria, Dec. 30, 1882. 

Field Force Pump Company.— Gentlemen .-—This last season I used 
one of your Force Pumps to spray my pear, plum and cherry trees 
with a weak solution of Paris green, f found that it greatly improved 
the fruit and rendered it almost entirely free from worms. I am satis- 
fied that it was perfectly safe to use the solution, as I used the fruit, 
and found it superior to what was usually raised on the same trees. 

W. D. ROBINSON. 

Lockport, N. Y., Aug. 8, 1883. 
Field Force Pump Co.— Genis:— As to how I like my Force Pump, 
will say I can, with 50 feet of hose, throw a steady stream over my 
two story house, and regard it as a very good and cheap protection 
against fire. It gives perfect satisfaction. Yours, 

O. C. WRIGHT. 

Address FIELD FORCE PUMP CO., Lockport, N. Y. 



BEES 



At $7.00 per Colony, 

IN ONE-STORY SIMPLICITY HIVE, EIGHT COMBS, 
DIVISION BOARD, AND CLOTH. 



ITALIAN QUEENS, 

At 75 cents each, by mail, 



AFTER JUNE 1st. 



The Beeswood Queen Apiary, 



NEWARK, TV. J. 



W. EARLE CASS 



W. T. FALCONER, 

MANUFACTURER OF 

APIARIAN SUPPLIES. 

A specialty made of all styles of the Simplicity Hive, 
including the " Falcon " Chaff Hive, with movable 
upper story, which is growing rapidly in favor, as 
offering superior advantages for wintering and 
handling bees at all seasons, which is at- 
tested by the thousands now in use. 

This hive is furnished with one or both sides movable, 
at an additional cost of 15c. per side. 



MANUFACTURER OF 



FOUNDATION, 

And I>ealer in all Kinds ©t 

Appliances for the Apiary. 



Send for Illustrated Price List, Free. 



W. T. FALCONER, 

JAMESTOWN N. V. 





s 

r. 

£ 
5 

e 

u 
H 



WHY NOT BUY YOUR 

QUEENSlBEES 

Direct from the Breeder? 

25 CENTS SAVED IS 25 CENTS MADE. 

If you wish to purchase Italian Bees or Queens early 
in the spring, and wish a bargain, you should send for 
my new Price List. Queens ready in April. Address 

W. S. CAUTHEN, 

Pleasant Hill, Lancaster Co., S. C. 

MUTH'S 

HONEY EXTRACTOR 

Is Second, to None in \k Market. 

SQUARE GEARS, HONEY JARS, TIN BUCKETS, 

LANGSTROTH BEE HIVES, ONE PIECE 

SECTIONS, ETC^ ETC. 

Circulars mailed on application. Send JO cents for 
"Practical Hints to Bee Keepers." Address 

CHARLES F. MUTH, 

& E. Cor. Freeman and Central Aves., Cincinnati, 0. 



Twenty-seventh Edition. March, 1884. 

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 

or 

Practical Books 

AND 

PERIODICALS, 

PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY 

THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION €0. 



KNOWLEDGE IS POWER.' 




|^p° Any of these Books maybe obtained from any Bookseller or Newsdealer, or will be 
sent free by mail to any part of the United States or Canada ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. 

Remittances should be made in Bank Drafts, Postal Orders, or Registered letters. Frac- 
tional parts of a dollar may be sent in postage stamps of small denominations, but we will not 
receive postage stamps to the amount of $1.00 or over. Postage stamps of large denominations, 
and Canadian postage stamps are of no use to us. Canadian currency and British postage 
stamps will be received in any quantity, but only from foreign correspondents. 

New Editions of this catalogue, containing descriptions of New Books, are issued from time 
to time, and will be sent free to any address on application. Address all orders to 

INDUSTRIAL, PUBLICATION CO., 

294 Broadway, New York. 



NOW READY. 



Second and Enlarged, Edition, 



The Steel Square 



AND ITS USES. 



By FRED. T. HODGSON. 



This is the only work on The Steel Square axd Its Uses ever 
published. It is Thorough, Exhaustive, Clear, and Easily Understood. 
Confounding terms and scientific phrases have been religiously avoided 
where possible, and everything in the book has been made so plain that 
a boy twelve years of age, possessing ordinary intelligence, can under- 
stand it from end to end. 

The New Edition is Illustrated with over Seventy-five Wood- cuts, 
showing how the Square may be used for solving almost every problem 
in the whole Art of Carpentry. 

The following synopsis of the contents of the work will give some 
idea of its character and scope. 



— History of the "Square." — Descrip- 
tion, with Explanation- of the Rules, Fig- 
ures', Scales, and Divisions shown on good 
Squares. 

— Brace Rules, Octagonal Scale, Board, 
Plank and Scantling Rules, fully explained 
and described. 

— How to lay out Rafters, Hips, Jack- 
Rafters, Purlins, Revel Works, etc., etc. 

— P>acking for Hips, Lengths and Bevels 
of Valley Rafters. Laying out Stairs and 
Strings. 

— How to describe Circles, Ellipses, 
Parabolas and other figures, with thi 
Square. 

— How to obtain Bevels for Hoppers 
and all kinds of Splayed Work and Spring 
Mouldings, by the Square. 

— Bisecting Circles, Proportion of Cir- 
cles, Division of Widths, Bisection of 



Angles, Diminishing Stiles, Centering 
Circles, etc., etc. 

— Theoretical Rafters, Cuts for Mitre 
Boxes, Measurement of Surfaces, including 
Painting, Plastering, Shingling, Siding, 
Flooring, Rough Boarding, Tinning and 
Roofing. 

— Rules for describing Octagons and 
Polygons of every description, and how 
to find their angles and areas. 

— Rules for finding the lengths of Rafters 
and Hips of Irregular Roofs, Cuts for 
Equal and Unequal Mitres, Trusses and 
Bevel Timber Work. 

— The Development of Hip and Curved 
Roofs; Veranda Rafters, Straight and 
Curved; Hopper Cuts of all kinds, Angle 
Comer-pieces, Splayed Work for Gothic 
Heads, etc., etc., and many other things 
useful to the Operative Mechanic. 



Handsomely Bound in Cloth with Gilt Title. 
Price ONE DOJLLAB, 



PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 

BEING A GUIDE TO THE 

Correct Working and Laying Out of all kinds 
of Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. 

With the Solutions of the Various Problems in Hip- Roofs, Gothic 
Work, Centering, Splayed Work, Joints and Jointing, Hing- 
ing, Dovetailing, Mitering, Timber Splicing, Hopper 
Work, Skylights, Raking Mouldings, Circular 
Work, Etc., Etc. 

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A THOROUGH TREATISE ON 

"CARPENTER'S CEO M ETRY." 

ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 300 ENGRAVINGS. 

By FRED. T. HODGSON, 

Author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," "The Builder's Guide 

and Estimator's Price Book," "The Slide Rule and 

How to Use It," Etc., Etc. 

Handsomely Bound in Cloth, P»rice $1.00. 

This is the most complete book of the kind ever published. It is 
Thorough, Practical and Keliable, and at the same time is written 
in a style so plain that any workman or apprentice can easily un- 
derstand it. The annexed table of contents will give a better idea 
of its scope and value than can be had from any amount of notices 
or descriptions : 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
PAET I. 

Geometry.— Straight Lines.— Curved Lines.— Solids.— Compound Lines. 
—Parallel Lines.— Oblique or Converging Lines.— Plane Figures.— 
Angles.— Eight Angles.— Acute Angles. — Obtuse Angles.— Right- 
an ded Triangles.— Quadri lateral Figures.— Parallelograms.— Rect- 
angles.— Squares.— Rhomb- mis.— Trapeziums. —Trapezoids.— Diag- 
onals. —Polygons.— Pentagons. — Hexagons. — Heptagons. — Octa- 
gons. — Circles. — Chords. — Tangents.— Sectors.— Quadrants.— Ares.— 
Concentric and Eccentric Circles. — Altitudes. — Problems I. to XXIX. 
—Drawing of Angles.— Construction of Geometrical Figures.— Bisec- 
tion of Lines.— Trisection of Lines and Angles.— Division of Linos 
into any Number of Parts.— Construction of Triangles, Squares and 
Parallelograms.— Construction of Proportionate Squares.— Con- 
struction of Polygons.— Areas of Polygons.— Areas of Concentric 
Riners and Circles.— Segments of Circles.— The use of Onlinntes 
for Obtaining Arcs of Circles.— Drawing an Ellipse with a Trammel. 
—Drawinsr a,n Ellipse by means of a String.— Same by Ordinates.— 
Raking Ellipses.— Ovals.— Sixty-two Illustrations. 



PART II. 

Arches, Centres.— Window and Door Heads— Semi-circular Arch.— 
Segmental Arches.— Stilted Arches.— Horseshoe Arch.— Lancet Arch. 
—Equilateral Arch— Gothic Tracery.— Wheel-Windows.— Equila- 
teral Tracery— Square Tracery— Finished Leaf Tracery— Twenty- 
two Illustrations. 

PART III. 

Roofs.— Saddle Roof— Lean-to or Shed Roof.— Simple Hip-Roof — 
Pyramidal Roof.— Theoretical Roof.— Roof with Straining Beam.— 
Gothic Roof— Hammer-Beam Roofs.— Curved Principal Root's.— 
Roofs with Suspending Rods— Deck Roofs— King-post and Prin- 
cipal Roof.— Queen-post and Principal Roof.— Roofs with Laminated 
Arches— Strapped Roof Frames.— Tie-beam Roofs.— Roofs for Long 
Spans.— Theatre Roof.— Church Roof.— Mansard Roof.— Slopes ot 
R 00 f s —Rules for Determining the Sizes of Timbers for Roofs.— 
Acute and Obtuse Angled Hip-Roofs.— Development of Hip-Roofs.— 
Obtaining Lengths and Bevels of Rafters— Backing Hip-Rafters — 
Lengths, Bevels and Cuts of Purlins.— Circular, Conical and Seg- 
mental Roofs.— Rafters with Variable Curves.— Veranda Rafters.— 
Development of all kinds of Rafters.— Curved Mansard Rafters.— 
Framed Mansard Roofs.— Lines and Rules for obtaining various 
kinds of Information.— Thirty-four Illustrations. 



PART IV. 

Covering of Roofs.— Shingling Common Roofs.— Shingling Hip- 
Roofs.-Method of Shingling on Hip Corner.-Cove ring Circular 
Roofs.— Covering Ellipsoidal Roofs.— Valley Roofs— Four Illustra- 
tions. 

PART V. 

The Mitering and Adjusting of Mouldings— Mitering of Soring 
Mouldings —Preparing th« Mitre-box for Cutting Spring Moula- 
ings— Rules for Cutting Mouldings, with Diagrams.— Mitre-boxes 
of various forms— Lines for Spring Mouldings of various kinds.— 
Seven Illustrations. 

PART VI. 

Sashes and Skylights.— Raised Skylights.— Skylights with Hips — 
OctafTon Skvlights with Segmental Ribs —Angle-bars, with Rules 
and Diagrams, showinghowro obtain the Anerles. Forms, etc.— basli- 
Bars. Hints on their Construction— Twelve Illustrations. 

PART VII. 

MouLDiNGS.-Angle Brackets.-Oorner Coves -Enlarging and Redlin- 
ing Mouldings.-Irregular Moulding-Raking Mouldings with 
Rules for Obtain ing.-Monldings for Plinths and Capitals of Gothic 
Columns— Mouldings around Square Standards.— Mitering Cir- 
cular Mouldings with eaeh other.— Mitering Circular Mouldings 
with Straight ones —Mitering Mouldings at a Tangent.— Mitering 
Spring Circular Mouldings.— Description of Spring Mouldmgs.- 
Lines for Circular Spring Mouldings.— Seventeen Illustrations. 



PART VIII. 

;r ° 1 ^^~ 1 S Vet f { ^ e -Common Dovetailing.-Lapped Dovetailing.- 
£1; ???& MlM«.--S<raara Dovetailing.-Splay Dovetailing.- 
?nf fe ai ^ d w Irr , egul A ar Povetailing.-Lines aud Cuts for Hoppers 
Tfflfi Work '- Angles and Mitres for Splayed Work.-Nineteen 



Illustrations. 



PART IX. 



Miscellaneous Problems -Bent Work for Splayed Jambs.-Develop- 
meut of Cylinders.-Rules and Diagrams for Taking Dimensions - 
Angular and Curved Measurements.-Eight Illustration? 



PART X. 

Joints and STKAPS.-Mortise and Tenon Joints.-Toggle Joints -Hook 
Joints -Tongue Joint.-Lap Splice.-Scarnng.-Weage .Joints - 

King-bolts -Straps, Iron Ties, Sockets, BeEring-plttes IWs 
Swivels and other Iron Fastenings.-Straining Timbers Struts and 
King-pieces.-Three Plates, Sixty-five Illustrations d 

PART XI. 

Hinging and Swing Joints.— Door Hinging.— Centre-pin Hinging — 
Blind Hinging —Folding Hinging.— Knuckle Hinging.— Pew Hing- 
ing.- Window Hinging.-Half-tum Hinge.-Full-turn Hinge.-Back 
£, la P l, 1 . n . ging: - - ?R le - J0m . t Hinging.-Rebate Hinging.-Three 
Plates, Fifty-one Illustrations. 



PART XII. 

Useful Rules and Tables.— Hints on the Construction of Centres.— 
Rules for Estimating.— Form of Estimate.— Items for Estimating,— 
Remarks on Fences.— Nails: sizes, weights, lengths and numbers.— 
Cornices, Proportions and Projections for Different Styles of Archi- 
tecture ; and Tall and Low Buildings, Verandas, Bay Windows and 
Porches.— Proportion of Base-boards, Dados, Wainscots and Sur- 
bases.— Woods. Hard and Soft, their Preparation, and how to 
Finish.— Strength and Resistance of Timber of various kinds.— 
Rules, showing Weight and other qualities of Wood and Timber.— 
Stairs, Width of Treads and Risers ; their Cost ; how to Estimate on 
them, etc.— Inclinations of Roofs.— Contents of Boxes. Bins and 
Barrels.— Arithmetical Signs.— Mensuration of Superficies.— Areas 
of Squares, Triangles, Circles, Regular and Irregular Polygons. — 
Properties of Circles.— Solid Bodies.— Gunter's Chain.— Drawing 
and Drawing Instruments;— Coloring Drawings.— Coloring for 
Various Building Materials.— Drawing Papers.— Sizes of Drawing 
Papers.— Table of Board Measure.— Nautical Table.— Measure of 
Time.— Authorized Metric System.— Measures of Length.— Mea- 
sures of Surfaces.— Measures of Capacity. — Weights. — American 
Weights and Measures.— Square Measure— Cubic Measure.— Cir- 
cular Measure.— Decimal Approximations.— Form of Building 
Contract. 



HAND SA_WS. 

THEIR USE, CARE AND ABUSE. 

HOW TO SELECT, AND HOW TO FILE THEM. 

Being a Complete Guide for Selecting, Using and Filing all kinds of Hand- 
Saws, Back-saws, Compass and Key-hole Saws, Web, Hack and 
Butcher's Saws ; showing the Shapes, Forms, Angles, Pitches 
and Sizes of Saw-Teeth suitable for all kinds of Saws, and for 
all kinds of Wood, Bone, Ivory and Metal ; together with 
Hints and Suggestions on the Choice of Files, Saw- 
Sets, Filing "Clamps, and other Matters pertain- 
ing to the Care and Management of all 
Classes of Hand and other Small Saws. 
The work is intended more particularly for Operative Carpenters, 
Joiners, Cabinet-Makers, Carriage Builders, and Wood-Workers 
Generally, Amateurs or Professionals. 

ILLUSTRATED BY OVER SEVENTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS. 

By FRED. T. HODGSON, 

Author of " The Steel Square and Its Uses," " The Builder's Guide a»td 
Estimator's Price Book," Practical Carpentry," Etc., Etc. 

Frice ------ $1.00. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAET I. 

History of the Saw.— Saws-of the Greeks.— Invention of the First Saws.— 
Eygptian Bronze Saws in the British Museum. — Antiquity of Saws.- ■ 
Mention of Saws in Holy Writ. — Saws of the Stone Age. — Saws of the 
South-sea Islanders.— Saws for Cutting Stone. — Japanese Saws.— Dif- 
ferent Varieties of Saws. — Manner of Using Saws by the Ancients. — 
Assyrian Saws. —Invention of Circular and Band-Saws. — First Circular- 
Saws in America." 

PAET II. 

Philosophy of the Cutting Qualities of Saw-Teeth.— The " Why and Where- 
fore" of the Cutting Pitch and Angles of Rip-Saw Teeth.— The Round 
Gullet-Tooth.— Chisel-Teeth and their Action on the Wood.— On 
the Various Angles Required for Cutting Hard and Soft Woods, with 
Explanations of Space, Pitch, Gullet, Gauge, Set, Rake and Points.— 
Names of Saws, with Dimensions, Form "of Teeth, Descriptions and 
Explanations.— How to Choose a Saw ; with Hints as to Form, Quality, 
Make and " Hang " of a Saw. with Remarks Concerning Different 
Makers — Sash-Saws. Dovetail-Saws, Rip-Saws, Panel-Saws, Cross-cut 
Saws, Bow-Saws, Web-Saws, Key-hole Saws, Compass-Saws and Tenon- 
Saws. 

PAET III. 

How to Use Hand-Saws.— How to Saw Well and Easily.— Hints for Sawing 
Straight. — Rules for New Beginners. — French, German and American 
Workmen. — Saws Filed to Work on the Pull-Stroke. — Changeable 
Key-hole Saws. — Use of Back-Saws. — Use of Web-Saws. — Care of 
Buck-Saws.— The Buck-Saw; the Terror of Boyhood, and Whv.— The 
Butch er's-Saw, the Hack-Saw, and the Surgeon's-Saw with Descrip- 
tion of Each, and Hints as to their Management. 



table of contents (Continued). 

PART IV. 

Filing and Setting Hand-Saws.— The Qualities Required to make a Good 
Filer. — Rules in some Old-time Joiner Shops.— Careless Filing and its 
Consequences.— Clamping Saws for Filing.— The Line of Teeth.— 
Angular Groove on Cutting Edge of Saw.— Filing Backs of Teeth.— 
Jointing the Sides of Teeth.— Shape of Teeth for Cross-cutting Hard 
Wood, Medium and Soft Wood.— Cutting Angles Required for Various 
Degrees of Hardness in Woods.— Angle to Hold the File.— The True 
Theory of Saw-Filing. — Buckling and Twisting Saws; How Done and 
How Avoided.— u Hook and Pitch." — Careless Use of Saws, and the 
Injuries Done to them in Consequence.— The Filing of Different Saws, 
and why One Class of Saws Require Different Treatment from Another. 
The Saw that Scrapes, and the Saw that Cuts ; the " Why " of this Dif- 
ference.— Why Some Men do Much More Work than Others, and with 
Greater Ease, when Sawing. 

PAKT V. 

Miscellaneous Saws ; their Uses, How to Care for Them, and How to Use 
Them.— The M Tooth, Teeth that Cut Both Ways, Crenate Teeth, 
Brier Teeth, Gullet Teeth, Parrot-bill Teeth, Hog Teeth, the Lancet 
and other Fancy Forms of Teeth, Described and Explained.— The Old- 
style " Peg Tooth," for Two-handed Cross-cut Saws. — Various Exam- 
ples of the " Peg-Tooth Saw.— Hack-Saws ; How to Use and How to 
Keep in Order.— Butcher's-Saws, Surgeon's-Saws, Saws for Cutting 
Combs, Ivory, Brass, Gold, and Silver.— Circular-Saws for Cutting 
Metal, Ivory, Tortoise-shell, and other Hard Materials.— Jig-Saws, 
Band-Saws ; their Uses and How to Keep them in Order.— Scroll-Saws ; 
their Uses and Care. — Progress of the Band-Saw ; its Future ; How to 
Make them do Clean Work.— Heating Saws ; Rules for their Manage- 
ment.— Why Circular-Saws Burst. 
j 

PAKT VI. 

Remarks on Saws, Files, Sets, and other Appliances.— Saw-Files ; what 
Constitutes a Good One, and How to Select.— Different Qualities of 
Saw-Files, and How to Know the Various Grades.— Why there are 
Different Grades.— Hints on the Use of Files.— Circular-Saws that are 
not Circular.— How to Become an Expert Sawyer.— Speed of Circular- 
Saws ; Table of Same.— Speed of Reciprocating-Saws, or Jig-Saws, 
Speed of Feed for Same.— Working Action of Band-Saws.— How Band- 
Saws Became Possible.— French and American Band-Saw Blades.— 
Inside Sawing with Band-Saws.— Detachable Band-Saws.— Aids to 
Saw-Filing. — Saw-Clamps. — Saw-Filers. — Saw-Sets. — Hand-Setting 
with Punch and Hammer.— Setting with " Sets."— Machine Band-Saw 
Setters -Devices for Holding Saws while being Set and Filed. 

PART VII. 

Notes and Memoranda.— Saw-Gauges.— Comb-Saw Gauges.- -Saw-Gindes. 
Mitre-Boxes.— Circular vft. Band-Saws. — Emery Sharpeners.— Small 
j Saws.— Machine-Saws. —Narrow Saws.— Brazing Band-Saws.— Re- 
marks on Circular-Saws. -Power Required to Drive Circular-Saws,— 
Mill-Saws,— Saws with Few Teeth. 



Plaster and Plastering. 
MORTARS AND CEMENTS. 



HOW TO MAKE, AND HOW TO USE. 

BEING A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR THE PLASTERER IN THE PREPARATION 
AND APPLICATION OF ALL KINDS OF PLASTER, STUCCO, PORTLAND 
CEMENT, HYDRAULIC CEMENTS, LIME OF TIEL, ROSENDALE AND 
OTHER CEMENTS, WITH USEFUL AND PRACTICAL INFORMA- 
TION ON THE CHEMISTRY, QUALITIES AND USES OF THE 
VARIOUS KINDS OF LIMES AND CEMENTS. TO- 
GETHER WITH RULES FOR MEASURING, 
COMPUTING, AND VALUING PLASTER 
AND STUCCO WORK. 

TO WHICH IS APPENDED 

AN ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TERMS 

USED IN PLASTERING, ETC. 

Besides numerous Engravings in the text, there are three Plates, giving some 
forty figures of Ceilings, Centrepieces, Cornices, Panels and Soffits. 



By FRED. T. HODGSON, 



FricG 



01. OO. 



INDEX 



Description of Plates, 
Preface, . 
Preliminary, 



FAGE 
1 



TOOLS AND MATERIALS. 

PAr.E 

The Hoe or Drag, . . .10 

The Hawk, .... 10 

The Mortar-Board 11 

Trowels, . . . ' . 11 

Floats 11 

Moulds, 11 

Centre Moulds, . . ..12 

The Pointer, 12 

The Paddle, 12 

Stopping and Pricking out Tool, 12 
Mitering Rods, , , , . .12 



The Operator, 

The Scratcher, . 

The Hod, 

The Sieve, 

Sand Screens, 

Mortar-Beds, 

The Slack Box, . 

Lath, 

Lather's Hatchet, 

Nail Pocket, 

Cut off Saw, , , 


• 


♦ 


• 


PAGE 

12 
13 
13 
13 
13 
14 
14 
14 
15 
15 
15 



index (Continued). 



MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN PLASTERING. 



Internal Plastering, 
Coarse Stuff, 
Fine Stuff, 

Putty 

Stucco, .... 
Lime, 

Plaster-of-Paris, 
Laths, . 
Cements, . . 
Calcination, . 
Quicklime, 
Slaking, 
Air Slaking, 
Hyclraulicity, 
Hydraulic Limes, 
Sand, .... 
> OPERATIONS. 

General Instructions, 
Floating the Work, 
Trowelling and Rendering, 
Running Cornices, 
Ornamental Cornices, 
Flowers and Cast Work, 



17, 



PAGE 

. 16 

16 

. 16 

16 
• 16 
18, 20 
17, 18 

17 
. 17 

18 
. 18 

18 
. 19 

19 
. 20 

22 



PAGE 

. 30 
31 

. 32 
32 

. 34 
35 



Substitutes for Sand, 
Marble Dust, 
Hair, ; 

Colors, .... 
Whitewash, 
Whiting, 

Saylor's Portland Cement, 
Cellar Floors, , 
Mastic for Plastering, 
Stable Floors, 
Concrete for Foundations, 
Keene's Cement, . 
Metallic Cement, 
Portland-Cement Stucco, 
Lias Cement, . 
Rough Cast, . 



PLASTERER'S MEASUREMENT. 



PAGE I 

44 



Measuring and Valuation, 
Mensuration of Superlices, . 
Taking Dimensions, 
Specifications, .... 
Rendering to Walls, 
Lath and Plaster Work to Cv\ lings, 
Lath and Plaster Work to Partitions, 
MISCELLANEOUS MEMORANDA 

PAGE 

Hard Hydraulic Cement, 

Colored* Cements, 

Brick-Dust Cement, 

Hardening Plaster, 

Mastic Cement, 

Cement for Outside Brick Walls 

To Mend Plaster Models, 

Cheap Concrete Flooring, . 

To Make Moulds, 

Artificial Building Stone, . 

Artificial Marble, . 

Hard Mortar, 

Marble-Worker's Cement, 

Mason's Cement, . 

Whitewash, 

Red Wash for Bricks, . 

To Whiten Internal Walls, 

Concrete, .... 

Papier Mache, . 

Plaster Ornaments, 

Fibrous Plaster, 

Staining Marble, . 

Cleaning Marble, 



External Plastering 
Scagliola, 
Carton Pierre, . 
Papier Mache, 
Stamped Leather, 
Stearate of Lime, 



Measuring Cornices, 

Measuring Stucco, 

Coloring, .... 

Summary, 

Pugging", .... 

Whitewashing and Coloring 



PAGE 

. 23 

24 
. 24 

24 
. 24 

25 
. 25 

25 
. 25 

25 
. 26 

27 
. 27 

28 
. 28 

29 



PAGE 

35-41 
41 

. 42 
42 

. 42 

42-43 



PAGE 

. 47 
48 
. 48 
48-50 
. 50 
51-53 



To Take Wax Moulds from Plaster 

Cement for Mouldings, . 

Cement Floors for Cellars, 

Wash, .... 

Coloring in Distemper, 

Mortar, .... 

Caution, 

Concrete Walls, 

External Stucco, . 

Proportions of Materials, 

Puzzolana, 

Grout, .... 

Weights of Materials, . 

Items, " 



Cisterns, 

Blackboards, 

Measuring Plasterer's Work, 

Notes, .... 

Mortars and Cements, 

Concrete Houses, 

Strength of Different Mortars, 

Form of Agreement, 



GLOSSARY OF TERMS. A to Z, 



64 
65 
66 

67 
67-74 
74-77 

77-78 
78-81 



83-10: 



IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT 

TO ARCHITECTS, CONTRACTORS AND BUILDERS. 

For many years past there has been a want by the building fraternity of a good 
and reliable book on Estimating, one that will give prices of materials and labor 
for every department of building, so far as this is possible. Such a book, the pub- 
lishers believe, has at last been produced, and is now offered to those interested. 

THE BUILDER'S GUIDE, 

AND ESTI MATOR'S PRI CE BOOK. 

By FRED. T. HODGSON. 



HANDSOMELY BOUND IN CLOTH, GILT TITLE. PRICE, - $2.00. 

Current Prices of Lumber, Hardware, Glass, Plumbers' Supplies, Paints, 
Slates, Stones, Limes, Cements, Bricks, Tin and other Building Materials; 
also, Prices of Labor, and Cost of Performing the Several Kinds of Work 
Required in Building. Together with Prices of Doors, Frames, Sashes, 
Stairs, Mouldings, Newels, and other Machine Work. To which is appended 
a large number of Building Rules, Data, Tables and Useful Memoranda, 
with a Glossary of Architectural and Building Terms. 

This is an entirely new work, and gives Prices of Lahor and Materials down 
to a recent date, and is, therefore, the most reliable book in the market on the 
subject of prices of labor and materials required for building. The work con- 
tains, besides Prices, Data, Rules, and Several Hundred Tables and Hints on 
Building, a blank column where the prices of Labor or Material may be written 
in pencil, where such prices differ from those given in the book. There is also 
a very complete Glossary of Building and Architectural Terms appended to the 
work, which is a useful and valuable addition for practical builders. 

The work is really a Cyclopaedia of Prices and Builder's Tables, Data and 
Memoranda, and is necessarily a large work, having over 330 pages, each page 
being 74 x 4|, and covered with closely printed matter. 

In order to give an idea of what the work contains, we give the following brief 

SYNOPSIS OF CO:*TEr*TS: 
Part L— Contains Hints and Rules for Correct Estimating.— Forms for Taking 
Estimates, Quantities, Prices, and Manner of Computation. — General Memoranda 
of Items for Estimates. — Excavations. — Foundations. — Drains.— Iron Work.— 
Baths and Water Closets. — Brick Walls. — Carpenter's Work.— Joiner's Work. — 
Mantels, Grates, Stove Fittings, etc. — Pantry, Closets, Kitchens and Appurten- 
ances. — Bell Hanging, Gas Fixing and Fixtures. — Stairs and Staircases. — Roofs, 
Gutters and Conductors.— Porches, Verandas and Fences.— Framing; Cost of 
same. — Cost of Painting, Plastering, Shingling, Slating, Tinning, Finishing, 
Glazing, Building Chimneys, and other Brick 'Work. — Rules for Measuring all 
kinds of Hip and' other Roofs, with Cost of same. — Rough Boarding, Shingling, 
Siding, Laying Floors, and other Work.— Cost of Material and Labor for Stairs, 
Newels, Balusters, Rails, Doors, Mouldings, Sliding and Folding Doors, Windows 
of all kinds, Blinds, Wainscoting, Baseboards, Finials, Cresting, Plumbing, Floor- 
ing, and everything else used about a Building. 

Part II. — Contains an Extensive Schedule of Builder's Prices, for Digging, 
Shovelling, Ramming in Loose Earth, Clay and Gravel.— Cost of Masonry, 
Rubble, Hammer-Dressed Work, Rough Rock Work, Reveals, Ashler Work, Re- 



synopsis of contents (Continued). 

pairs, Arches, Plain Work, Rubbed Work, Beaded Work, Fluting, Reeding, 
Throating, Grooving, Rebating, Leading in Work, Sunken Work, Mortising, 
etc.— Prices of ail kinds of Native Stones per Cubic Foot.— Prices of Cements; 
Portland, Rosendale, Keene's, Lime of Teil, Lime, Lath, Slate, etc.— Bricklay- 
ing; Price per 1,000, Laborer's Wages, Prices of Bricks of Different Grades, Cir- 
cular and Elliptical Work, Brick Paving of all kinds, Laid Dry or in Mortar.— 
Drain Pipes, Cost and Quality; Terra-Cotta Chimney Tops, Cresting, Tiles and 
Mouldings, etc.— Colored Bricks, Tuck Pointing, Setting in Sash and Door 
Frames, Taking Down Old Work, Rebuilding with Old Bricks, Firebricks, Tile 
Work, Quality and Prices of Bricks from Various Localities, Prices of Peerless 
Brick Company's Colored Bricks, Colored Mortars and Cements, Odd-Shaped 
Bricks.— Plasterer s Work, Scaffolding, Lathing, Mortars for all kinds of Work, 
Cements for Walls and Ceilings, Cornices and Stucco Work, Plaster-of-Paris 
Flower and Ornamental Work, "Kalsomining and Washes of all Kinds.— Carpen- 
ter's and Joiner's Work ; Wages, Prices of Lumber, Prices of Made-up Stuff of all 
Kinds.— Hard-wood Work, Nails, Screws. Locks, Butts and other Hardware.— 
Stairs of all Kinds, Table for Finding the Run and Rise of Treads and Risers, 
Turned Work for Stairs and other Work.— Painting, Colors, Prices for Different 
Kinds of Work, Ladders, Scaffolding, Tools, Graining, Painting Iron Work, 
Staining, Repairing Old Work. Numerical Work, Varnishing, Lettering, Oiling, 
Sash and Door Painting, Mixing Colors, Prices of Colors, Miscellaneous Re- 
marks.— Roofing Materials of all Kinds, with Prices and Cost of Laying ; Bell- 
Hanging Materials, Skylights, Tubs, Sinks, Sheet Iron, Pumps, Tanks', Registers, 
Ventilators, Wire Ropes, and other matters required in Building. 

Part III.— Contains Rules for Builder's Bookkeeping, Form of Balance Sheet, 
Rules for Measuring Artificer's Work, including Excavation, Drains. Shoring, 
Concreting, and Labor in General : also Methods of Measuring all Kinds of Ma- 
terials for Brick, Stone, or Wood Work.— Elements of the Mechanics of Archi- 
tecture, Strength of Materials, Rides for Obtaining Same ; Iron, Wood, Stone 
and Brick, Crushing Loads for Various Building Materials, Columns, Iron, Wood, 
Stone.— Tables for Computing the Strength of 'Materials, Factors of Safety, 
Rolled-Iron Beams and Girders. — Bricks and Brick Piers, Terra-Cotta, Strength 
and Qualities of Cements and Mortars, Fire-Brick, Colored Mortars, Granite and 
other Stone. 

Part IV— Miscellaneous Tables.— Weight of Iron, Lead, Brass, Copper and 
Cast Iron, per Foot Superficial or in Bars ; Strength of Round Ropes, Weight of 
Boiler Iron, Wrought-Iron Pipes, Flat and Round Wire Ropes for Elevators, Iron 
Roofing, Lead Pipes, Nails, Foreign Weights and Measures, Force of Wind, 
Square Measure, Long Measure, Equivalents, Arithmetical and other Signs, Ex- 
pansion by Heat, Force of Explosives, Number of Shingles, Slates, Tiles and 
other Covering Required for 100 feet of Roofing, Number of Bricks Required for 
Given Wall, Strength of Woods, Loads for Bridges, Strains on Bridges and 
Trusses, Specific Gravities. 

Part V.— Mensuration of Superfices, Areas of Squares, Cubes, Triangles, 
Multi-sided Figures, etc.; Measurements of Solids, Cubes, Cones, Cylinders, 
Spheres, etc.; Squares and Cubes of Numbers, Table of Spherical Contents, 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles, Board and Plank Measure, 
Scantling Measure, Wages Table, Sizes and Capacities of Cribs, Boxes and Tanks. 

Part VI. — Mechanics' Lien Laws of Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Cali- 
fornia, Colorado, District of Columbia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia. Indiana, 
Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, 
Mississippi, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, Nevada, Nebraska, New Hamp- 
shire, North Carolina, New York, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
South Carolina, Texas, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, 
Ontario. 

Part VIL— Schedule of Architect's Charges, Drawings, Superintendence, Per- 
centage on Public Buildings. — Architect's Rules and Methods of Charging for 
Services Rendered.— Leading Architectural and Building Journals.— Glossary of 
Architectural and Building Terms. (This "Glossary" covers some fifty-seven 
pages, and deals with over One Thousand Terms used in Architecture and 
Building). 



A NEW BOOK 

FOR 

CABINET MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS, FURNITURE MEN, AMA- 
TEUR WOOD FINISHERS, ETC., ETC. 



HINTS 

AND 

Practical Information 

FOR 

CABINET-MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS, AND 
FURNITURE MEN GENERALLY. 

TOGETHER WITH 

A DESCRIPTION OF ALL KINDS OF FINISHING, WITH 
FULL DIRECTIONS THEREFOR— VARNISHES— POL- 
ISHES-STAINS FOR WOOD— DYES FOR WOOD- 
GILDING AND SILVERING— RECEIPTS FOR 
THE FACTORY— LACQUERS, METALS, MAR- 
BLES, ETC.— PICTURES, ENGRAVINGS, 
ETC.— MISCELLANEOUS. 



This work contains an Immense Amount of the most Useful 
Information for those who are engaged in Manufacture, Superin- 
tendence, or Construction of Furniture or Wood Work of any 
Kind. It is one of the Cheapest and Best Books Ever Published, 
and contaius 

Over 1,000 Hints, Suggestions, Methods, 

And Descriptions of Xools, Appliances, 
sibuI Materials. 

All the Recipes, Rules and Directions have been carefully Re- 
vised and Corrected by Practical Men of great experience, so that 
they will be found thoroughly trustworthy. 

Price, Bound in Cloth, with Side Title in Gold, $1.00. 

Sent to anv Address on Receipt oe Price. 



A NEW SERIES OF PRACTICAL HOOKS. 

WORK MANUALS. 

The intention of the publishers is to give in this Series a number of small books which 
will give Thorough and Reliable Information in the plainest possible language, upon the 

ARTS OE EVERYDAY LIFE. 

Each volume will be by some one who is not only practically familiar with his subject, 
but who has the ability to make it clear to others. The volumes will each contain from 
50 to 75 pages, will be neatly and clearly pnnted on good paper and bound in tough 
and durable binding. The price will be 25 cents each, or five for One Dollar. 

The following are the titles of the volumes already issued. Others will follow at 
short intervals. 

I. Cements and Glue. 

A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of All Kinds of Cements, Glue 

'and Paste. By John Phin, Editor of the Young Scientist and the A merica" 

Jourtial of Microscopy. 

Every mechanic and householder will find this volume of almost everyday use. It 

contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of Cements for almost every conceivable 

purpose. 

II. The Slide Rule, and How to Use It. 

This is a compilation of Explanations, Rules and Instructions suitable for mechanics 
and others interested in the industrial arts. Rules are given for the measurement of 
all kinds of boards and planks, timber u. the round or square, glaziers' work and paint- 
ing, brickwork, paviors' work, tiling and slating, the measurement of vessels of various 
shapes, the wedge, inclined planes, wheels and axles, levers, the weighing and meas- 
urement of metals and all solid bodies, cylinders, cones, globes, octagon rules and 
formulae, the measurement of circles, and a comparison of French and English measures, 
with much other information, useful to builders, carpenters, bricklayers, glaziers, 
paviors, slaters, machinists and other mechanics. 

Possessed of this little Book and a good Slide Rule, mechanics might carry in their 
pockets some hundreds ol times the power of calculation that they now have in their 
heads, and the use of the instrument is very easily acquired. 

III. Hints for Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers. 

Being a selection of Useful Rules, Data, Memoranda, Methods and Suggestions 
for House, Ship, and Furniture Painting, Paperhanging, Gilding, Color Mixing, 
and other matters Useful and Instructive to Painters and Decorators. Prepared 
with Special Reference to the Wants of Amateurs. By an Old Hand. 

IV. Construction, Use and Care of Drawing Instruments. 

Being a Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with Rules for their Use and Care, 
Explanations of Scale-,, Sectors and Protractors. Together with Memoranda for 
Draughtsmen, Hints on Purchasing Paper, Ink, Instruments, Pencils, etc. Also a 
Price List of all materials required by Draughtsmen. Illustrated with twenty-four 
Explanatory Illustrations. By Fred. T. Hodgson. 

V. The Steel Square. 

Some Difficult Problems in Carpentry and Joinery Simplified and Solved by the 
aid of the Carpenters' Steel Square, together with a Full Description of the Tool, 
and Explanations of the Scales, Lines and Figures on the Blade and Tongue, and 
How to Use them in Everyday Work. Showing how the Square may be Used 
in Obtaining the Lengths and Bevels of Rafters, Hips, Groins, Braces, Brackets, 
Purlins, Collar- Beams, and Jack-Rafters. Also, its Application in Obtaining 
the Bevels and Cuts for Hoppers, Spring Mouldings, Octagons, Diminished 
Styles, etc., etc. Illustrated by Numerous Wood-cu s. By Fred. T, Hodgson, 
Author of the " Carpenters' Steel Square." 
Note. — This work is intended as an elementary introduction for the use of those who 
have not time to study Mr. Hodgson's larger work on the same subject. 



POCKET MANUAL NUMBER ONE ; OR, THE 

"liters' and Travellers' Ready Reference Book 

FOR, EVERY DAY USE. 

Rev. JOHN M. HERON, A. Itl., Editor. 



CONTENTS. 



1. Title Page. 

2. Dedication and Copyright. 

3. Editor's Preface. 

4. Contents. 

5. Over 20,000 Synonymous Words. 

6. Foreign Words and Phrases in 

general use. 

7. Domestic and Foreign Postage 

Eates and Laws and Stamp 
Duties. 

8. Value Foreign Coins as per author- 

ized standard U. S. Mint. 

9. Use of Capital Letters. 

10. Rules for Pnuctuation. 

11. Abbreviations and their use. 

12. A Perpetuaf Calendar. 

13. An Interest Table. 



14. A Table showing distance of the 

principal American Cities from 
New York, the difference in 
Time, and the present Popula- 
tion of Each. 

15. Our Country and Government; the 

Area of the U. S., how acquired; 
Population of States and Terri- 
tories, Number of Electoral Votes 
each is entitled to, Representa- 
tives, etc.; The Executive and 
Judicial Branches of the Govern- 
ment, duties of officials, their 
salaries ; American Progress, 
etc., etc. 

16. Our Deportment. 

17. A Complete Index. 



Thousands of people have lone; felt the need of such a work as this. The 
correspondent, student, literary worker, or any person who has any writing to 
do, is constantly annoyed to think of just the "right words to use in order to 
convey the idea intended and make a smooth and finished sentence. The 
Writers' and Travellers' Ready Reference Book contains 20,000 synonymous 
words, alphabetically arranged", and this feature of it not only supplies this often 
much needed word, but it at the same time educates the searcher and enables 
him to express himself verbally with grace and ease. To the writer this list of 
Synonymous Words is second only to "the Spelling Book. The use of Capitals, 
rules for Punctuation and use of- Abbreviations are all-important, and frequently 
a lack of their observance or an ignorance of their rroper use turns what " might 
have been " a siiccessful life into another channel because such things as these 
caused some person to reject the application which otherwise would have been 
the successful turning point in the career of the writer. We cannot always 
carry a Spelling Book or Dictionary with us, and nowhere is information on 
these points so'concisely given and so handy for reference as in the Writers' 
and Travellers' Ready Reference Book. We often spend considerable time 
and go to lots of trouble to ascertain something about Postage Rates. There 
are but few of us who do not need a list to give us the meaning of Foreign 
Words and Phrases which we constantly come" across in reading. A Calendar, 
Interest Table, and table showing the value of Foreign Coins, are all eminently 
practical and useful. All these this little book contains. The one table showing 
at a glance the population of the principal American cities, the distance of eacli 
from New York City, and the difference in time, is a marvel of condensation, 
and is worth more than the price of the book to any traveller. Under the 
head of " Our Country and Government" is given the pith of a large volume, 
just such facts as every American ought to possess, and they can be obtained 
nowhere else for less tlian four times the money. 

Good manners and an observance of a few simple Rules of Etiquette often do 
more towards winning friends and making one happy, than wealth, or the most 
classic education. They always go further than either or both towards making 
a gentleman or lady. Such Gems of Deportment as are of value to all, will be 
found in the "Pocket Manual." 

i*^ YOU would perfect and educate yourself in these matters, by all means, 
GET IT. IF YOU would save yourself from many annoyances and much loss 
of time and money, GET IT. IP You would make an inexpensive, appropriate 
and useful present to any person, GET IT. 

The Pocket Manual is printed from new and perfect plates, on fine tinted paper, 
made expressly for it, bound in Silk Cloth, Flexible Covers, with Ink and Gold 
Side Stamp, Red Edges. Price 50 cents. 



THE 

MANUAL 



NUMBER TWO, 

OE, A 

KEY TO A PROFITABLE OCCUPATION FOR ANY PERSON. 
REY. JOHN M. HERON, A.M., EDITOR. 

TWENTY-FIVE DOLLARS WORTH OF INFORMATION IN THE POCKET. 

CONTENTS. 



How v ,o Become a Short- Hand 
Writer, or complete and practical 
instruction in Phonography, by 
Curtis Haven, Pres't Phila. College 
of Phoi ography, etc. 

How to Become a Proof-reader, by 
Joseph Johnson, experienced proof- 
reader. 

How to Become a Telegraph Opera- 
tor, by J. W. Crouse, Ex Supt. Pa. 
R. R. Wires. Eastern Division. 

How to Use a Type-Writer, or simple 
instructions for operating with a 
Writing Machine. By J. W. Earle, 
Phila. Manager Remington Type- 
Writer Co. 

How to Get a Farm from U. S. By 
Arthur Bradley, Attorney. 

How to Manufacture Super-phos- 
phate of Iiinie and Guano. By M. 
Franz, Scientist. 

How to Raise Poultry or Poitltry and 
Eggs as a Business. Ry M. H. Pen- 
dleton, editor " Poultry Messen- 
ger." 

How to Become a Dressmaker. PI ai n 
directiois for learning to do .finished 
work for one's self or as a business, 
by Miss Isabel Crawford, Practical 
Dressmaker. 

How to Draw and Paint Flowers, etc., 
from nature or otherwise. By Prop. 
John Collins, Artist. 



The Suhscription Book Business. Its 

Influence, Growth, Desirability, etc., 
by VV. H. Thompson. Publisher. 

How to Become a Book-keeper and 
Practical Instructions for Book- 
keepers. By Thomas May Peirce, 
M.A., of the Peirce College of Busi- 
ness, Phila. 

How to Make out Reports and Audit 
Acc'ts of Building Associations, 
what Building Associations are and 
how conducted. By Thomas Gapp- 
ney, Practical Accountant and 
Building Association Expert. 

Directions for Silk Culture, with in- 
structions for raising Worms, spin- 
ning Cocoons, etc., by Mrs. M. E. 
Cunningham, assisted by the silk 
Culture Association. 

Collecting Old Coins. Tables of dif- 
ferent coins with market prices, etc, 
By G. L. Fanoher, Numismatist. 

Stamps Collecting, and How to Buy 
and Sell Stamps. By L. W. Durbin, 
Philatelist and Stamp Dealer. 

How to Make Soap. By FRANK P. 
Harmed, Chemist of the Penu 
Chemical Works. 

Ambition, Enterprise and Integrity. 
By Rev. John M. Heron, A.M. 

Table of Wages by the Month. From 
the American Home and Farm Cy- 
clopaedia, 



Every Article, with the exception of one or two of the less important ones, 
is original, and has been prepared with the utmost care by a, person of par- 
ticular experience, reputation and ability for the subject. So much original 
matter and so able a corps of writers was nevea* before presented in a book of 
the size and price. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. Several articles have been illustrated at a heavy ex- 
pense. The lessons in short hand were produced by photo-engraving from 
pen drawings 16 times the size. There are some 25 of these. Prof. Collins' 
and Attorney Bradley's articles are most tastily and beautifully illustrated. 

The skill of the engraver has been required in rendering complete several 
other features. 

The Pocket Manual is printed on the finest rose tint paper, made expressly 
for it, from new and perfect plates, with a rule around each page, contains 224 
pages. 

Price, Bound in Finest English Cloth, Red Edges. Gold Side Stamp, 50 cents. 



A New and Live Book on the Gun. 

Just Published. Price 75 cents, in cloth. 

PLAIN DIRECTIONS 

I'OE ACQUIRING THE ART OF 

SHOOTING ON THE WING 

With Useful Hints concerning all that relates to Guns and Shoal 

: ng, and particularly in regard to the art of Loading so a c 

to Kill. To which has been added several Valuable 

and hitherto Secret Recipes, of Great Practical 

Importance to the Sportsman. 

By AN OLD GAMEKEEPER. 

Sent free Vy mail on receipt of price. 



Opinions of ihe !Prei*. 

The directions are so plain that they nannot well be mistaken, 
and they are expressed in the fewest possible words. — Turf, Field 
and Farm. 

Facing the title-page is one of tbe handsomest, best-executed 
woodcuts, we have ever seen. It is entitled "The Wounded 
Snipe," and almost equals a steel engraving.— Baptist Union. 

j?rom its pages we should think even the most experienced 
sportsman might derive some new ideas, while the beginner will 
<mdit an invaluable assistant. — Country Gentleman. 

Eor concise instructions as to how to shoot, to select, load, 
)arry, and keep a gun in order, otc, it cannot be surpassed.— 
Western Rural. 

1 pleasantly written, and, it seems, to us, correct and practical 
treatise on the sportsman's art; a modest little book, but one from 
the reading of which a good deal of the right kind of knowleo^ 
is to be gained. — Appleton's Journal 

A practical and well-written handbook, especially adapted for 
che use of young sportsmen, as it ^ives sensible advice on thp 
manipulation of firearms, and the rules and etiquette of the field. 
Scientific American. 



The Only Practical Book Published on this Subject 

THE PISTOL 



AS A 



WEAPON OF DEFENCE, 

In the House and on the Road, 
12mo. Cloth. 50 cents. 



This work aims to instruct the peaceable arid law-abiding citizens in the 
best means of protecting themselves from the attacks of the brutal and 
the lawless. Its contents are as follows: The Pistol as a Weapon of De- 
fence—The Carrying of Fire-Arms— Different kinds of Pistols in Market; 
how to Choose a Pistol— Ammunition, different kinds; Powder, Caps, 
Bullets, Copper Cartridges, etc.— Best form of Bullet— How to Load- 
Best charge for Pistols — How to regulate the Charge — Care of the Pistol; 
how to clean it — How to handle and carry the Pistol — How to Learn tc 
Shoot — Practical use of the Pistol; how to Protect yourself and how to 
Disable your antagonist. 

"No man is fit to keep house who is not fit to defend it."— Henry Ward 
Beecher. 

" So long as rogues cannot be prevented from carrying weapons, honest 
men do not consult their own safety and the public good by totally dis- 
carding them." — Eecorder Hacketi, 

"Such I hold to be the genuine use of gunpowder; that it makes all meu 
alike call (or strong,)" — Carlyle. 

For Sale by all Newsdealers, or Sent postpaid by Mail on receipt of price 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

A Collection, of Useful and Reliable Recipes, 

Rules, Processes, Methods, "Wrinkles, 

anil Practical Hints, 

FOR THE HOUSEHOLD JHYH THE SHOJP. 



CONTENTS. 

Abyssinian Gold:— Accidents, General Rules; — Alabaster, how to work, polish and 
clean; — Alcohol; — Alloys, rules for making, and 26 recipes; — Amber, how to work, 
polish and mend; — Annealing and Hardening glass, copper, steel, etc.; — Arsenical 
Soap; — Arsenical Powder; — Beeswax, how to bleach; — Blackboards, how to make; — 
Brass, how to work, polish, color, varnish, whiten, deposit by electricity, clean, etc., 
etc.; — Brazing and Soldering; — Bronzing brass, wood, leather, etc.; — Burns, how to 
cur e; — Case-hardening; — Catgut, how prepared; — Cements, general rules for using, and 
56 recipes for preparing; — Copper, working, welding, depositing; — Coral, artificial; — 
Cork, working; — Crayons for Blackboards; — Curling brass, iron, etc.; — Liquid Cu- 
ticle; — Etching copper, steel, glass; — Eye, accidents to; — Fires, to prevent; — Clothes on 
Fire; — Fireproof Dresses; — Fly Papers; — Freezing Mixtures, 6 recipes; — Fumigating 
Pastils; — Gilding metal, leather, wood, etc.; — Glass, cutting, drilling, turning in the 
lathe, fitting stoppers, removing tight stoppers, powdering, packing, imitating ground 
glass, washing glass vessels, etc. ; — Grass, Dry, to stain; — Guns, to make shoot close, 
to keep from rusting, to brown the barrels of, etc., etc. ; — Handles, to fasten ; — Inks, 
rules for selecting and preserving, and 34 recipes for; — Ink Eraser; — Inlaying; — Iron, 
forging, welding, case-hardening, zincing, tinning, do. in the cold, brightening, etc., 
etc. ; — Ivory, to work, polish, bleach, etc. ; — Javelle Water; — Jewelry and Gilded Ware, 
care of, cleaning, coloring, etc. ; — Lacquer, how to make and apply; — Laundry Gloss ; — 
Skeleton Leaves; — Lights, signal and colored, also for tableaux, photography, etc., 25 
recipes; — Lubricators, selection of, \ recipes for; — Marble, working, polishing, clean- 
ing; — Metals, polishing ; — Mirrors, care of, to make, pure silver, etc., etc.; — Nickel, 
to plate with without a battery; — Noise, prevention of; — Painting Bright Metals; — 
Paper, adhesive, barometer, glass, tracing, transfer, waxed, etc.; — Paper, to clean, take 
creases out of, remove water stains, mount drawing paper, to prepare for varnishing, 
etc., etc. ; — Patina; — Patterns, to trace; — Pencils, indehble; — Pencil Marks, to fix; — 
Pewter; — Pillows for Sick Room, cheap and good; — Plasier-of-Paris, how to work;— 
Poisons, antidotes for, 12 recipes; — Polishing Powders, preparation and use of (six 
pages); — Resins, their properties, etc.; — Saws, how to sharpen; — Sieves; — Shellac, 
properties and uses of; — Silver, properties of, oxidized, old, cleaning, to remove ink 
stains from, to dissolve from plated goods, etc., etc.; — Silvering metals, leather, iron, 
etc. ; — Size, preparation of various kinds of; — Skins, tanning and curing, do with hair 
on; — Stains, to remove from all kinds of goods; — Steel, tempering and working (six 
pages); — Tin, properties, methods of working; — Varnish, 21 recipes for; — Varnishing, 
directions for; — Voltaic Batteries; — Watch, care of; — Waterproofing, 7 recipes for; — 
Whitewash; — Wood Floors, waxing, staining, and polishing; — Wood, polishing; — 
Wood, staining, 17 recipes; — Zinc, to pulverize, black varnish for. 

164 closely-printed pages, neatly bound. Sent bv mail for 36 cents 

(postage stamps received). 



RECENT ISSUES. 
Collodio-Etching, 

A Guide to Collodio-Etching. By Rev. Benjamin 
Hartley. Illustrated by the "Author. 12mo., Cloth, 

Neat, - $1.00. 

This volum3 gives complete and minute instructions for one of the 
most delightful of Amateur Arts. It is fully illustrated by wood-cuts 
of all the apparatus used (which is very simple and easily made), 
and also by actual photo prints of the etchings themselves. 



Scientific Experiments. 

Easy Experiments in Chemistry and Natural Philoso- 
phy. For Educational Institutions of all Grades, and 
for Private Students. By G. Dallas Lind, Author 
of "Methods of Teaching in Country Schools," and 
"Normal Outlines of the Common School Branches." 
Paper, - - - - - - 40 cents. 

This book, besides being a valuable guide for the teacher and 
student, will afford scientific amusement sufficient to brighten the 
evenings of a ayIioIc winter. 



The Builder's Guide and Estimator's Price Book. 

Being a Compilation of Current Prices of Lumber, 
Hardware, Glass, Plumbers' Supplies, Paints, Slates, 
Stones, Limes, Cements, Bricks, Tin, and other Building 
Materials ; also, Prices of Labor, and Cost of Performing 
the Several Kinds of Work Kequired in Building. To- 
gether with Prices of Doors, Frames, Sashes, Stairs, 
Mouldings, Newels, and other Machine Work. To which 
is appended a large number of Building Rules, Data, 
Tables, and Useful Memoranda, wim a Glossary of 
Architectural and Building Terms. By Fred. T. Hodg- 
son, Editor of " The Builder and Wood- Worker," 
Author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," etc., etc. 
12mo., Cloth, ------ $2.00. 



Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. 

By the Kev. T. W. Webb, M.A., F.B.A.S. Fourth Edi- 
tion, Kevised and Greatly Enlarged. Fully Illustrated 
with Engravings and a large Map of the Moon. 

Cloth, - $3.00 

This edition has been made for us by the English publishers, and 
is in every respect the same as the English edition. The work itself 
is too well known to require commendation at our hands. Tifo one 
that owns even the commonest kind of a telescope can afford to do 
without it 

" Many things, deemed invisible to secondary instruments, are 
plain enough to one who ' knows how to see them.' "— Smyth. 

" When an object is once discerned by a superior power, an inferior 
one will suffice to see it afterwards."— Sir. W. Hjerschel. 

Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 

By John Phin, Editor of the " American Journal of 

Microscopy " and the " Young Scientist." 

12 mo., Cloth, 75 cents. 

In this volume an attempt is made to trace the evolution of our 
globe from the primeval state of nebulous mist, " without form and 
void," and existing in "darkness," or with an entire absence of the 
manifestations of the physical forces, to the condition in which it was 
fitted to become the habitation of man. While the statements and 
conclusions are rigidly scientific, it gives some exceedingly novel 
views of a rather hackneyed subject. 

Ponds and Ditches. 

A Work on Pond Life and Kindred Objects. By M. C. 

Cooke, M.A., LL.D. Cloth, 12mo., - 75 cents. 

This is a most interesting volume by a well-known author and 
microscopist. It is very freely illustrated with engravings of the 
objects usually found in pond water. 

Microscopical Examination of Drinking Water. 

A Guide to the Microscopical Examination of Drinking 
Water. By J. D. McDonald. 
8vo., Cloth, 24 plates, - - .-'•.- $2.75 



dements and Glue. 

A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of all 
Kinds of Cements, Glue, and Paste. By John Phin, 
Editor of the "Young Scientist" and the "American 
Journal of Microscopy." 
Stiff Covers, - - - - - 25 cents. 

This is the first of a Series of 'Work Manuals," which are intended 
to be thoroughly trustworthy and practical. They are not mere 
reprints of old matter, but fresh presentations of valuable material, 
representing the latest developments of science. Every mechanic 
and householder will find the volume on Cements of almost everyday 
use. It contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of cements for 
almost every conceivable purpose. 

The Amateur's Hand-Book of Practical Information. 

For the Workshop and the Laboratory. Second Edition. 
Greatly Enlarged. Neatly Bound, - - 15 cents. 

This is a handy little book, containing ,iust the information needed 
by Amateurs in the Workshop and Laboratory. Directions for 
making Alloys, Fusible Metals, Cements, Glues, etc. ; and for Solder- 
ing, Brazing, Lacquering, Bronzing, Staining and Polishing Wood. 
Tempering Tools, Cutting and Working Glass, Varnishing, Silvering, 
Gilding, Preparing Skins, etc., etc. 

The New Edition contains extended directions for preparing Polish- 
ing Powders, Freezing Mixtures, Colored Lights for tableaux, Solu- 
tions for rendering ladies' dresses incombustible, etc. There has also 
been added a very large number of new and valuable receipts. 

Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements. 

Embracing all those which are Most Important in Dy- 
namics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam 
Engines, Mill and Other Gearing, Presses, Horology and 
Miscellaneous Machinery; and including Many Move- 
ments never before published, and several of which have 
only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown, editor 
of the "American Artisan." Eleventh Edition. $1.00 
This work is a perfect Cyclopaedia of Mechanical Inventions, which 
are here reduced to first principles, and classified so as to be readily 
available. Every mechanic that hopes to be more than a rule-of- 
thumb worker ought to have a copy. 



How to Put Up a Lightning Rod. 

Plain Directions for the Construction and Erection of 
Lightning Rods. By John Phin, C.E., editor of the 
"Young Scientist," author of "Chemical History of the 
Six Days of the Creation," etc. Second Edition. En- 
larged and Eully Illustrated. 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt 
Title, _...-. 50 cents. 

This is a simple and practical little work, intended to convey just 
such information as will enable every property owner to decide whether 
or not his buildings are thoroughly protected. It is not written in the 
interest of any patent or particular article of manufacture, and by fol- 
lowing its directions, any ordinarily skilful mechanic can put up a rod 
that will afford perfect protection, and that will not infringe any patent. 
Every owner of a house or barn ought to procure a copy. 

Lectures in a Workshop. 

By T. P. Pemberton, formerly Associate Editor of the 
"Technologist;" Author of "The Student's Illustrated 
Guide to Practical Draughting." With an appendix con- 
taining the famous papers by Whitworth "On Plane 
Metallic Surfaces or True Planes;" "On an Uniform 
System of Screw Threads ; " " Address to the Institution 
of Mechanical Engineers, Glasgow;" "On Standard 
Decimal Measures of Length." 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt, $1.00 

We have here a sprightly fascinating book, full of valuable bints, 
interesting anecdotes and sharp sayings. It is not a compilation of 
dull sermons or dry mathematics, but a live, readable book. The 
papers by Whitworth, now first made accessible to the American 
reader, form the basis of our modern systems of accurate work. 

Mechanical Draughting for Self Taught Students. 

The Student's Illustrated Guide to Practical Draught- 
ing. A series of Practical Instructions for Machinists, 
Mechanics, Apprentices, and Students at Engineering 
Establishments and Technical Institutes. By T. P. 
Pemberton, Draughtsman and Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated with Numerous Engravings. Cloth 

Gilt, - $1.00 

This is a simple but thorough book by a draughtsman of twenty-five 
years' experience. It is intended for beginners and self-taught stu- 
dents, as well as for those who pursue the study under the direction of 
a teacher. 



A New Book for Bee-Keepers. 

A Dictionary of Practical Apiculture, giving the correct mean- 
ing of nearly Five Hundred Terms, according to the usage of 
the best writers. Intended as a Guide to Uniformity of Ex- 
pression amongst Bee-Keepers. With Numerous Illustra- 
tions, Notes, and Practical Hints. By John Phin, Author of 
"How to Use the Microscope, " etc. Editor of the "Young 
Scientist." Price, Cloth, Gilt, 50 cts. 

This work gives not only the correct meaning of five hundred different 
words, specially used in bee-keeping, but an immense amount of valuable 
information under the different headings. The labor expended upon it has 
been very great, the definitions having been gathered from the mode in 
which the words are used by our best writers on bee-keeping, and from the 
Imperial, Richardson's, Skeat's, Webster's, Worcester's and other English 
Dictionaries. The technical information relating to matters connected with 
bee-keeping has been gathered from the Technical Dictionaries of Brande, 
Muspratt, Ure, Wagner, Watts, and others. Under the heads Bee, Comb, 
Glucose, Honey, Race, Species, Sugar, Wax and others, it brings together a 
large number of important facts and figures which are now scattered 
through our bee-literature, and through costly scientific works, and are not 
easily found when wanted. Here they can be referred to at once under the 
proper head. 

How to Become a Good Mechanic. 

Intended as a Practical Guide to Self-taught Men ; telling 
What to Study; "What Book's to Use; How to Begin ; What 
Difficulties will be Met; How to Overcome them. In a word, 
how to carry on such a Course of Self-instruction as will en- 
able the Young Mechanic to Rise from the Bench to some- 
thing higher. Paper, 15 cts. 

This is not a book of "goody-goody" advice, neither is it an advertise- 
ment of any special system, nor does it advocate any hobby. It gives plain, 
practical advice in regard to acquiring that knowledge which alone can 
enable a young man engaged in any profession or occupation connected 
with the industrial arts to attain a position higher than that of a mere 
workman. 

The Horse. 

A Treatise on the Horse and his Diseases. By J. B. Kendall, 

M.D. 76 Engravings. Paper, 20 cts. 

A Treatise giving an index of diseases, and the symptoms; cause and 
treatment of each, a table giving all the principal drugs used for the horse, 
with the ordinary dose, effects and antidote when a poison; a table with an 
engraving of the horse's teeth at different ages, with rules for telling the 
age of the horse ; a valuable collection of recipes, and much valuable in- 
formation. 



The Engineer's Slide Rule and its Applications. 

A Complete Investigation of the Principles upon which 
the Slide Rule is Constructed, together with the Method 
of its Application to all the Purposes of the Practical 
Mechanic. By William Tonkes. - - 25 cents. 

Rhymes of Science : Wise and Otherwise. 

By O. W. Holmes, Bret Harte, Ingoldsby, Prof. Forbes, 
Prof. J. W. McQ. Rankine, Hon. R. W. Raymond, and 
others. With Illustrations. Cloth, Gilt Title, 50 cents. 

We advise all our readers into whose souls the sunlight of fun ever 
enters to purchase this little book. " Making light of cereous things " 
has been said, by a high authority, to be " awicked profession," but the 
genius which can balance the ponderosity of an ichthyosaur upon the 
delicate point of a euphonious rhyme, or bear aloft a bulky lepto- 
rhyncus on the sparkling foam of a soul-stirring love ditty, is worthy- 
worthy of a purchaser.— PJaladetphia Medical News. 

Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving. 

A Manual of Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving; 
with a Description of the Necessary Tools and Apparatus, 
and Concise Directions for their Use; Explanation of 
the Terms Used, and the Methods Employed for Pro- 
ducing the Various Classes of Wood Engravings. By 
S. E. Fuller. Fully Illustrated with Engravings by the 
author, separate sheets of engravings for transfer 
and practice being added. New Edition, Neatly 
Bound, ..-._. 30 cents. 

What to Do in Case of Accident. 

What to Do and How to Do It in Case of Accident. A 
Book for Everybody. 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt Title, 50 cents. 
This is one of the most useful books ever published. It tells exactly 
what to do in case of accidents, such as Severe Cuts, Sprains, Disloca- 
tions, Broken Bones, Burns with Fire, Scalds, Burns with Corrosive 
Chemicals, Sunstroke, Suffocation by Foul Air, Hanging, Drowning, 
Frost-Bite, Fainting, Stings, Bites. Starvation, Lightning, Poisons, 
Accidents from Machinery and from the Falling of Scaffolding, Gun- 
shot Wounds, etc., etc. It ought to be in every house, for young and 
old are liable to accident, and the directions given in this book might 
be the means of saving many a valuable life. 



How to See with the Microscope. 

Being Useful Hints Connected with the Selection and 
Use of the Instrument; also Some Discussion of the 
Claims und Capacity of Modern High-Angled Objec- 
tives, as Compared with those of Medium Aperture. 
With Instructions as to the Selection and Use of Amer- 
ican Object-Glasses of Wide Apertures. By J. Edwards 
Smith, M.D., Professor of Histology and Microscopy; 
Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society ; Correspond- 
ing Member San Francisco, Dunkirk, and other Micro- 
scopical Societies, etc., etc. Second Edition. Hand- 
somely Illustrated, ----- $2.00 

Prof. Smith is well known as the most expert manipulator in this 
country, as regards objectives of wide aperture, and in this volume 
he gives, in a clear and practical manner, all the directions neces- 
sary to attain the surprising results which he has achieved. No 
microscopist that uses anything better than French triplets can 
afford to be without it. 

Marvels of Pond Life. 

A Year's Microscopic Recreations Among the Polyps, 
Infusoria, Rotifers, Water Bears and Polyzoa. By 
Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., etc. Second Edition. 
Seven Full Page Plates and Numerous Wood Engravings 
in the Text. 12mo., Cloth, Gilt, - - - Si. 00 

Leidy on Rhizopods. 

The Fresh- Water Rhizopods of North America. By 
Joseph Leidy, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, and of Natural History in 
Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. Contains 48 quarto 
plates of drawings of Magnified Rhizopods, beautifully 
colored. 1 vol., 4to., Cloth, - $5.00 



Catalogue of Medical Journals 

We have just issued a Complete List of all the Medical 
Journals published in the United States and Canada, 
with Addresses, Prices, Clubbing Rates, Editors' Names, 
etc. This list is corrected from time to time, so as to 
embody the latest information, and will be mailed free 
to any one who sends for it, 



Section Cutting. 

A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting ox 
Sections for the Microscope ; Special Prominence being 
d iven to the Subject of Animal Sections By Sylvester 
' Jfarsh. Keprinted from the London edition. With 
Illustrations. 12mo., Cloth, Gilt Title. - 75 cents. 

This is undoubtedly the most thorough treatise extant upon sectioi. 
cutting in all its details. The American edition has been greatly 
enlarged by valuable explanatory notes, and also by extended direc- 
tions, illustrated with engravings, for selecting and sharpening 
knives and razors. 

A Book for Beginners with the Microscope. 

Being an abridgment of " Practical Hints on the Selection 
und Use of the Microscope." By JohnPhin. Fully illus- 
trated, and neatly and strongly bound in boards. 30 cts. 
This book was prepared for the use of those who, having no know- 
ledge of the use of the microscope, or, indeed, of any scientific appar- 
atus, desire simple and practical instruction in the best methods oJ 
managing the instrument and preparing objects. 

How to Use the Microscope. 

" Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Micro- 
scrope." Intended for Beginners. By John Phin, 
Editor of the "American Journal of Microscopy." 
Fourth Edition. Greatly enlarged, with over 80 engrav- 
ings in the text, and 6 full-page engravings, printed on 
heavy tint paper. 12mo., cloth, gilt title, - $1.00 

The Microscope. 

By Andrew Boss. Fully Illustrated. 12mo. i Cloth, 

Gilt Title. 75 cents. 

This is the celebrated article contributed by Andrew Koss to the 
"Penny Cyclopaedia," and quoted so frequently by writers on the 
Microscope. Carpenter and Hogg, in the last editions of their works 
on the Microscope, and Brooke, in his treatise on Natural Philoso- 
phy, all refer to this article as the best source for full and clear 
information in regard to the principles upon which the modern 
achromatic Microscope is constructed. It should b8 in the library 
of every person to whom the Microscope is more than a toy. It ig 
Written in simole language, free from abstruse technicalitf e§ , 



The Microscopisfs Annual for 1879. 

Contains List of all the Microscopical Societies in the 
country, with names of officers, days of meeting, etc. ; 
etc. ; Alphabetical and Classified Lists of all the Manu 
facturers of Microscopes and Objectives, Dissecting Ap- 
paratus, Microscopic Objects, Materials for Microscopists, 
in Europe and America, etc., etc. ; Postal Kates, Eules 
and Regulations, prepared expressly for microscopists ; 
Weights and Measures, with tables and rules for the con- 
version of different measures into each other; Custom 
Duties and Regulations in regard to Instruments and 
Books ; Value of the Moneys of all Countries in U. S. 
Dollars ; Value of the Lines on Nobert's Test Plates ; 
Table of Moller's Probe Platte, with the number of lines 
to inch on the several diatoms, etc., etc. ; Focal Value 
of the Objectives of those makers who Number their 
Objectives (Hartnack, Nachet, etc.) ; Focal Value of the 
Eye-pieces of different makers ; Magnifying Power of 
Eye-pieces and Objectives, etc., etc. The whole form- 
ing an indispensable companion for every working micro- 
scopist. Limp Cloth, Gilt - - - 25 cents. 

im' The " Annual " for 1880 is in a forward state of preparation, and 
will be uniform in size and price with that for 1879. 

Microscope Objectives. 

The Angular Aperture of Microscope Objectives. By 
Dr. George E. Blackham. 8vo., Cloth. Eighteen full 
page illustrations printed on extra fine paper. $1.25. 
Sold only by Subscription. 
This is the elaborate paper on Angular Aperture, read by Dr. 
Blackham before the Microscopical Congress, held at Indianapolis. 

Kutzing on Diatoms.— Nearly ready. 

The Siliceous Shelled Bacillarire or Diatomacese; the 
History of their Discovery and Classification ; their Dis- 
tribution, Collection, and Life-History. By Friedrich 
Traugott Kutzing. Translated from the German by Prof. 
Hamilton L. Smith, of Geneva, N. Y. 12mo., Cloth, 
Gilt, - - - - 50 cents. 



FOURTH EDITION. Greatly Enlarged, with over 80 illustrations in the Ttxi 
and 6 full page Engravings, printed on Heavy Tint Paper. 1 Vol. i-zmo., 240 
p.iges. Neatly Bojmd in Cloth, Gilt Title. Price $1.00. 

HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE. 

A SIMPLE AND PRACTICAL BOOK, INTENDED FOR BEGINNERS. 

By JOHN PHIN, 

Editor of " TJie American Journal of Microscopy." 



CONDENSED TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

The Microscope. — What it Is; What it Does; Different Kinds of Microscopes; 
Principles of its Construct on ; Names of the Different Parts. 

Simple Microscopes. —Hand Magnifiers; Doublets; Power of Two or More 
Lenses When Used Together ; Stanhope Lens ; Coddington Lens ; Achromatic 
Doublets and Tiiplets; Twenty-five Cent Microscopes — and How to Make Them; 
Penny Microscopes, to Show Eels in Paste and Vinegar. 

Dissecting Microscopes. — Essentials of a Good Dissecting Microscope. 

Compound Microscopes. — Cheap Foreign Stands; The Ross Model; The Jackson 
Model; The Continental Model; The New American Model; Cheap American 
Stands; The Binocular Microscope; The Binocular Eye-piece; The Inverted Micro- 
scope; Lithological Microscopes; The Aquarium Microscope; Microscopes for 
Special Purpo.-es; "Class" Microscopes. 

Objectives. — Defects of Common Lenses; Spherical Aberration; Chromatic do. ; 
Corrected Objectives; Defining Power ; Achromatism; Aberration of Form ; Flatness 
of Field; Angular Aperture; Penetrating Power : Working Distance; Immersion and 
"Homogeneous" Lenses; Duplex Fronts; French Triplets, etc., etc. 

Testing Objectives. — General Rules; Accepted Standards — Diatoms, Ruled 
Lines, Artificial Star; Podura; Nobert's Lines; Moller's Probe Platte, etc., etc. 

Selection of a Microscope — Must be Adapted to Requirements and Skill of 
User; Microscopes for Botany; For Physicians; For Students. 

Accessory Apparatus. — Stage Forceps; Forceps Carrier; Plain Slides; Concave 
Slides; Watch-Glass Holder; Animalcule Cage; Zoophyte Trough; The Weber Slide; 
The Cell-Trough; The Compressorium ; Gravity Compressorium ; Growing Slides; 
Frog Plate; Table; Double Nose-piece. 

Illumination. — Sun-Light; Artificial Light— Candles, Gas, Lamps, etc., etc. 

Illumination of Opaque Objects. — Bulls-Eye Condenser; Side Reflector; The 
Lieberkuhn; The Parabolic Reflector; Vertical Illuminators. 

Illumination of Transparent Objects. — Direct and Reflected Light; Axial or 
Central Ligh ; Oblique Light ; The Achromatic Condenser; The Webster Condenser, 
and How to Use i f ; Wenham's Reflex Illuminator, and How to Use it; The Wenham 
Prism; The "Half-Button;" The Woodward Illuminator; Tolles' Illuminating 
Traverse Lens; The Spot Lens; The Parabolic Illuminator; Polarized Light. 

How to Use the Microscope. — General Rules; Hints to Beginners. 

How to Use Objectives of Large Aperture. — Collar-Correction, etc. 

Care of the Microscope. — Should be Kept Covered ; Care of Objectives ; Pre- 
cautions tc be Used when Corrosive Vapors and Liquids are Employed ; To Protect 
th Objectives from Vapors which Corrode Glass ; Cleaning the Objectives; Cleaning 
th Brass Work. 

Collecting Obiects. — Where to Find Objects ; What to Look for; How to Capture 
Them. 

The Preparation and Examination of Objects.— Cutting Thin Sections^ of 
So r Substances; Valentine's Knife; Sections of Wood and Bone; Improved Section 
Cutter; Sections of Rock; Knives; Scissors; Needles; Dissecting Pans and Dishes ; 
Dissecting Microscopes; Separation of Deposits from Liquids; Preparing Whole 
Insects; Feet, Eyes, Tongues, Wings, etc , of Insects; Use of Chemical Tests; Liquids 
for Moistening Objects; Refractive Powers of Different Liquids; Iod-Serum ; Artifici? 1 
-od-Serum; Covers for Keeping Out Dust; Errors in Microscopic Observations. 

Preservative Processes. — General Principles ; Preservative Media. 

Apparatus for Mounting Objects. — Slides; Covers; Cells; Turn-Tables, ecu. 

Cements and Varnishes.— General Rules for Using. 

Mounting Objects. — Mounting Transparent Objects Dry; in Balsam; in Liquid*' 
Whole Insects; How to Get Rid of Air-Bubbles ; Mounting Opaque Objects. 

Finishing the Slides. — Cabinets; Maltwood Finder; Microscopical Fallacies. 



GENESIS AND GEOLOGY. 



The only really scientific and logical system of harmony between 
Genesis and Geology is to be found in a little work, just published, 
and entitled 

THE CHEMICAL HISTORY 

OF 

The Six Days of Creation. 

BY JOHN PHIN, C. E., 

1 vol., 12tno., cloth. 75 cents. 

In this work an attempt is made to show that the account given of the 
Creation, in the first chapter of Genesis, agrees literally with the record 
developed by the investigations of modern science. 

May be ordered through any bookseller. Single copies sent by mail, 
on receipt of price, 



The folloicing are a few of the Opinions of the Press : 

This is a small book, but full of matter. The author believes in the book of Genesis 
as the "work of Moses, and believes in the entire correctness of the statements made 
by Moses .in regard to the work of creation. He defends the accuracy of the first 
chapter of Genesis, and defends it from a scientific standpoint. We think this book 
is full of interest and value; and as the discussions concerning the harmony of science 
and «faith are rife at the present day, we commend the reasonings of Mr. Phin to the 
great number of readers and students who are investigating these subjects.— The 
Presbyterian (Philadelphia). 

The author gives a new solution of this difficult question, and certainly presents 
many very plausible arguments in support of his theory. — Sunday-School Workman. 

A very candid and ingenious essay. — Christian Union (H. W. Beecher's paper). 

It is a topic which needs a calm and well-directed intellect to approach, and Mr. Phin 
has surrounded its discussion with thoughts of the deepest interest to all minds seek- 
ing rest on this much perplexing question. — Journal of the Telegraph. 

The reasons and conclusions are clear, distinct, and natural. The book will interest 
and instruct, and is intended to lead the reasoning mind to firmer faith in the light ot 
revelation. — New York Globe. 

No one can read this book without compensation, without becoming more thoughtful 
concerning the phenomena of creation ; and he need lose none of his reverence for the 
supremacy of the Divine Law. — Rural New-Yorker. 

We could say much in commendation of Prof. Phin's little book. An intelligent 
reader can hardly fail to be interested in it, and many might be benefited. — Country 
Gentleman. 

The book can not fail to interest even those who do not fully accept th« theory it 
advocates. — Boston Journal of Chemistry. 

It is a new scientific view of the matter. — Phrenological Journal. 

The book, although not large, will prove exceedingly interesting to all who have 
ever directed attention to this matter, and contains more solid and suggestive thought 
than many voluminous treatises on the subject. — Insurance Monitor. 

The work is ingenious and original, and presents many striking suggestions. — Ameri- 
can Baptist. 

We believe Prof. Phin has started upon the correct basis, and his theory is mainly 
tenable. His views are presented in a manner which, though terse, is easily compre- 
hended. — Pattrson Daily Guardian. 



THE YOUNG SCIENTIST, 

A Practical Journal for Amateurs. 

ISSUE» MONTHLY. Price $1.00 pei- year. 

It is characteristic of young Americans that they want to be doing something. 
They are not content with merely knowing how things are done, or even with seeing 
them done; they want to do them themselves. In other words, they want to experiment. 
Hence the wonderful demand that has sprung up for small tool chests, turning lathes, 
scrollsaws, wood-carving tools, telegraphs, model steam engines, microscopes, and all 
kinds of apparatus. In nine cases out of ten, however, the young workman finds it 
difficult to learn how to use his tools or apparatus after he has got them. It is true 
that we have a large number of very excellent text-books, but these are not just the 
thing. What is wanted is a living teacher. Where a living teacher cannot be found, 
the next best thing is a live journal, and this we propose to furnish. And in attempting 
this it is not our intention to confine ourselves to mere practical directions. In these 
days of knowledge and scientific culture, the "Why" becomes as necessary as the 
"How." The object of the Young Scientist is to give clear and easily followed 
directions for performing chemical, mechanical and other operations, as well as simple 
and accurate explanations < f the principles involved in the various mechanical and 
chemical processes which we shall undertake to describe. 

The scope and character of the Journal will be better understood from an inspection 
of a few numbers, than from any labored de>cription. There are, however, some 
features to which we would call special attention. 

Correspondence. — In this department we intend to place our readers in communi- 
cation with etch other, and in this way we hope to secure for every one just such aid 
as may be required for any special work on hand. 

Exchanges. — An exchange column, like that which has been such a marked success 
in the Journal of Microscopy, will be opened in the Young Scientist. Yearly sub- 
scribers who may wish to exchange tools, apparatus, books, or the products of their 
skill, can state what they have to offer and what they want, without charge. Buying 
and selling must, of course, be carried on in the advertising columns. 

Illustrations. — The Young Scientist is finely illustrated, and some of the en- 
gravings which we have published challenge comparison with those given in the most 
expensive journals. 

CLUBS. 

Where three or more subscribe together for the Journal, we offer the following 
liberal terms: 

3 copies for $2.50! 7 copies for $5-5o 

j 5 " " 4.00 I 10 " " 7.00 

-AJV EXTRAORDINARY OFFER. 

The examination of a few copies of the Young Scientist would give a clearer idea 
of its scope and character than pages of description and promises, and therefore we 
propose to send to any address the three first numbers of the year for 

TWENTY CENTS. 

BACK NUMBERS AlVD VOLUMES. 

As the pages of the Young Scientist have been electrotyped, we can supply any 
back number or volume. The prices for numbers and volumes prior to 1883 are: 
single numbers, six cents; volumes in loose numbers, fifty cents; volumes neatly bound 
in cloth, with gilt titles on the back, $1.00 each. At these prices the volumes and 
numbers will be sent free to those ordering them. Beginning with January, 1883, the 
Young Scientist was doubled in price and nearly trebled in size. 

FREMITJMS. 

A list of miscellaneous premiums will be sent to any one asking for it We offer 
specially liberal terms on Book Premiums and clubbing rates with other journals. 

Advertisements, 30 cents per line, agate measurement. Liberal discount on large 01 
continued advertisements. No advertisement inserted for less than $1.50. 

Address YOUNG SCIENTIST, New York. 



NEW DESIGNS 

FOE 

Fret or Scroll Sawyers. 



MR. F. T. HODGSON, whose admirable series of articles on the USE OF THE 
SCROLL SAW are now in course of publication in the Young Scientist, has pre- 
pared for us a series of 

SEVENTEEN B>ESIGJ\ T S, 
of which the following is a list : 

No. i. — This shows one side, back, and bottom, of a pen rack. It may be made 
of ebony, walnut, or other dark wood. 

No. 2. — Design for inlaying drawer fronts, table tops, box lids, and many other 
things. It is a sumach leaf pattern. 

No. 3. — Design for a thermometer stand. It may be made of any hard wood or 
alabaster. The method of putting together is obvious. 

No. 4. — This shows a design for a lamp screen. The open part may be covered 
with tinted silk, or other suitable material, with some appropriate device worked on 
with the needle, or, if preferred, ornaments may be painted on the silk, etc. 

No. 5. — A case for containing visiting cards. Will look best made of white holly. 

No. 6. — A placque stand, it may be made of any kind of dark 01 medium wood. 

No. 7. — A design for ornaments suitable for a window cornice. It should be 
made of black walnut, and overlaid on some light colored hard wood. 

No. 8 — A design for a jewel casket. This will be very pretty made of white holly 
and lined with blue velvet It also looks well made of ebony lined with crimson. 

No. 9. — Frame. Will look well made of any dark wood. 

No. 10. — Frame. Intended to be made in pairs. Looks well made of white holly, 
with leaves and flowers painted on wide stile. 

No. 11. — Horseshoe. Can be made of any kind of wood and used for a pen rack. 
When decorated with gold and colors, looks very handsome. 

No. 12. — Design for a hinge strap. If made of black walnut, and planted on a 
white or oaken door, will look well. 

No. 13. — Design for a napkin ring. May be made of any kind of hard wood. 

No. 14. — Hinge strap for doors with narrow stiles. 

No. 15. — Centre ornament for panel. 

No. 16. — Corner ornament for panel. 

No. 17. — Key-hole escutcheon. 

These designs we have had photo-lithographed and printed on good paper, so that 
the outlines are sharp, and the opposite sides of each design symmetrical. Common 
designs are printed from coarse wooden blocks, and are rough and unequal, so that 
it is often impossible to make good work from them. 

The series embraces over forty different pieces, and designs of equal quality cannot 
be had for less than five, ten or fifteen cents each. We offer them for twenty-five 
cents for the set, which is an average price of only one cent and a half each. 

Mailed to any address on receipt of price. 




SHEET NO. I. 



SHEET NO. 2. 

REDUCED FIGURES OF 

SSEW DESIGNS FOR FRET OR SCROLL SAWYERS. 

SIZE OF SHEETS 28 BY 22 INCHES. 

{For description see preceding page,) 




vS« 



